The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History

312 Pages·1988·181.08 MB·English

by  Richard Holmes (ed.)

MILITARY INNOVATIONS
THAT CHANGED THE COURSE OF HISTORY

BOSTON

PUBLIC
LIBRARY

es ee
lTorld Atlas
of
VFarjare
TE
Nhtary Innovations that
Changed the Course of History

ae| sUa e
lVorld Atlas
/WVihtary lino cuttons that
Changed the Course of Fiistory
General Editor and main contributor:
Richard Holmes
Contributors

Richard Holmes University of London, and a Fellow of the Royal
Lt Col Richard Holmes is a Senior Lecturer at the Historical and Asiatic Societies, Previously on the staff
Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, and a serving of the National Army Museum, his publications include
officer in the Territorial Army. His publications include The Indian Army, 1822 and The Afghan Wars 1839-1919.
The Little Field-Marshal (a biography of Sir John He served in the Territorial Army as an officer of the
French), The Road to Sedan: The French Army 1866-70, Royal Artillery.
and Firing Line. Among television documentaries he Ian Russell Lowell
was responsible for Comrades in Arms? Dunkirk 1940 The Revd Ian Russell Lowell, an Anglican team vicar,
and Soldiers (with John Keegan). became interested in the Late Bronze Age through Old
Matthew Bennett Testament studies. His main areas of research have
Matthew Bennett MA is a Senior Lecturer at the been the Hittites, the Sea Peoples and the Trojan War.
Department of Communications Studies, Royal Military He has contributed numerous articles to the Society of
Academy Sandhurst. He has published a number of Ancients’ magazine Slingshot and other journals.
articles and contributions to books on Classical and John Pimlott
Medieval warfare. Dr John Pimlott, Senior Lecturer in the Department of
Anthony Clayton War Studies, Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, is the
Dr Anthony Clayton is a Senior Lecturer in history at author of numerous books on modern warfare, and
the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. He is a acted as Consultant Editor to the partwork War in
specialist in imperial history, and his two most recent Peace. Among his recent works is a scholarly
works are The British Empire as a Superpower, 1919-39 publication on counterinsurgency.
and France, Soldiers and Africa. The latter publication John Sweetman
is a major study of the French military presence in Dr John Sweetman is Head of Defence and
Africa 1830-1962. International Affairs, Royal Military Academy
Eric Grove Sandhurst. He is an authority on military aviation and
Eric Grove is a widely published naval historian and has written a number of books and articles on military
former lecturer at the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. history and air power. His publications include
In 1980-81 he was Exchange Professor at the US Naval Schweinfurt: Disaster in the Skies, The Ploesti Raid and
Academy, Annapolis and is currently Associate Director Operation Chastise: The Dambusters Raid.
of the Foundation for International Security, Oxford. Charles Townshend
His major work to date is Vanguard to Trident: British Professor Charles Townshend is Professor of Modern
Naval Policy since 1945. History at Keele University, and a Fellow of the
T A Heathcote National Humanities Center. He is the author of several
Dr T A Heathcote, since 1970 Curator of the Royal books on counterinsurgency, including Britain’s Civil
Military Academy Sandhurst Collection, is a graduate Wars: Counter Insurgency in the 20th Century and
of the School of Oriental and African Studies, The British Campaign in Ireland 1919-1921.

Senior executive editor James Hughes Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: Harmondsworth,
Executive art editor Paul Wilkinson Middlesex, England
Specialist military editor Richard O'Neill
Editor Julia Gorton First published in 1988 by Viking Penguin Inc.
Cartographic editor Stephen Rogers Published simultaneously in Canada
Design assistant Rupert Chappell
Picture research John and Diane Moore (Military Copyright © Mitchell Beazley International Limited, 1988
Archive and Research Services) All rights reserved
Anne-Marie Ehrlich
Production Ted Timberlake Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Artwork reconstructions Stephen Biesty, Roy Huxley, Holmes, Richard, 1946—
Tony Gibbons, Richard Hook World atlas of Warfare.
Maps Lovell Johns Ltd
Additional artwork Hayward and Martin Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
Edited and designed by Mitchell Beazley International Ltd 1. Military art and science—History.
2. Military
Artists House, 14-15 Manette St, London W1V 5LB history. 3. Technological innovations. I. Title.
U27.H65__ 1988 355'.009 88-10678
ISBN 0-670-81967-0
VIKING STUDIO BOOKS
Published by the Penguin Group Typeset by Servis Filmsetting Ltd
Viking Penguin Inc., 40 West 23rd Street, New York, New Origination by Scantrans (Singapore)
York 10010, U.S.A.
Printed in West Germany by Mohndruck GmbH, Giitersloh
Penguin Books Ltd, 27 Wrights Lane, London W8 5TZ,
England Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above,
Penguin Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood, Victoria, Australia no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or
Penguin Books Canada Ltd, 2801 John Street, Markham, introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
Ontario, Canada L3R 1B4 or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
Penguin Books (N.Z.) Ltd, 182-190 Wairau Road, Auckland 10, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission
New Zealand of both the copyright owner and the above publisher of this
SQUARE
CODMAN
book.
4 “ah
k (982.
Contents

Introduction
Richard Holmes
1 The dawn of warfare Ian Russell Lowell
2 Warriors of Greece and Rome Matthew Bennett
3 Men of iron
Matthew Bennett
4 Storm from the East Matthew Bennett
5 War in the Orient
T A Heathcote
6 “Villainous saltpetre” Richard Holmes
7 The age of the flintlock Richard Holmes
8 The age of factory war Richard Holmes
9 The Star of Empire Anthony Clayton 114
10 World War I: Advance to deadlock Richard Holmes 130
11 World War I: Breaking the fetters Richard Holmes 146
12 World War II: Blitzkrieg Richard Holmes 166
13 World War II: The Eastern Front Richard Holmes 182
14 World War Il: The Desert War Richard Holmes 198
15 World War II: The Pacific War Eric Grove 208
16 World War II: The end in the West Richard Holmes 224
17 Strategic bombing John Sweetman 234
18 Guerrilla war Charles Townshend 250
19 Destroyer of worlds John Pimlott 266
20 An unquiet peace John Pimlott 280
Bibliography 294
Index 296
Acknowledgments 304
Introduction

Military history is a particularly appropriate subject for stimulus in its danger. Others regard war as a supreme
an atlas, for war has shaped our world. International waste of time, resources and life: they bitterly resent not
frontiers bear witness as much to the clash of armies as to merely their own involvement in it, but also the very fact of
the negotiations of diplomats. Indeed, diplomacy itself has its existence. For most, however, these essentially opposite
often — some would say too often — served only to confirm emotions are often curiously intermingled, with terror,
the verdict of war. Alliances, whether short-lived associ- frustration and despair being set alongside excitement,
ations between city-states in ancient Greece, or the super- enthusiasm and friendship.
power blocs of the modern world, have usually arisen to
meet a perceived military threat and to devise a collective The limits of the battlefield
response. Trade may have been a major motive for the Military history is, as we can already see, concerned with
creation of many of the great empires of history, but it was much more than battle. Yet the events of the battlefield
soldiers and sailors who fought to establish and retain have come to loom as large in the pages of military
them, just as other warriors tribesmen, soldiers in historians as they have in the memories of survivors. In

nationalist armies, or guerrillas — struggled to throw off part this is entirely justifiable: battle is a time of great
the imperial yoke. personal risk for its participants, and, in a broader sense, it
If war has played a leading role in the relationship has what John Keegan calls “a central role” in war,
between states, it has been scarcely less important within standing in relation to it much as the market place does to
them. Almost all aspects of a state’s corporate activities commerce. But in part, too, this emphasis on battle is
political and social, economic and administrative — are misleading. In the first place, battle is a comparatively rare
affected by war itself, or by preparation for it. Many social event in war. The cliché which describes war as “90 percent
systems have emphasized the connection between social boredom and 10 percent sheer terror” is not far from the
status and military duty. The hoplite infantry of Greece truth: most soldiers spend far longer training, marching,
were the political nation of their city-states in arms; the camping, cooking, and waiting, waiting, waiting than they
junker aristocracy of East Prussia paid for their social do fighting. Furthermore, as armies have become increas-
position on a hundred battlefields from Mollwitz to the ingly sophisticated technologically, so their supporting
Marne; and the samurai who dominated so much of “tail” has thickened while their fighting “teeth” have
Japanese history were a warrior caste whose status was grown fewer — albeit sharper. The modern soldier in
both advertized and epitomized by the wearing of a pair of combat may be supported by a dozen men whose primary
swords. function has little to do with the business of killing, and
who may resemble civilian truck drivers, stores clerks or
The army, the state, and the individual freight handlers more closely than they do the traditional
Political institutions, too, have been shaped by military fighting man.
pressures. The rise of the nation state in early modern Secondly, much of what happens on the battlefield
Europe was closely linked to the growth of standing

armies. The burgeoning bureaucracies of the period were
inspired largely by the need to raise troops and to levy
taxes — taxes which were themselves needed to maintain
fleets and armies. Effective central authority, as Richelieu
recognized in 17th-century France, hinged upon disci-
plined armed forces which were controlled by the king, not
by the great nobles. Modern state bureaucracies have
functions far wider than those of Richelieu’s day, but they
still rank high amongst their duties the provision of
money, men and equipment for defence. This close relation-
ship between central authority and armed force underlines
the importance of the army within the state. Armies
provide governments with support against internal en-
emies who seek their violent overthrow, and, with their rai
disciplined structures, reliable communications and spe- ‘The Somme 1916: British troops go over the top
cialist equipment they can also assist by maintaining
essential services in the event of civil disturbance or p oints unmistakably to the im portance of events off it. The
natural disaster. fighting qualities of soldiers owe much to the environ-
War is the most visible and dramatic function of armed ments, physical and cultural, which produce them; to the
force, and it, above all, is a time of supreme crisis for the training that has sharpened their military skills and
human spirit. Soldiers themselves risk death, injury and bonded them into cohesive units; and to the self-esteem and
capture, and their families and friends at home — even in discipline which help them to hold firm under stress. The
those periods of history when marauding armies or droning weapons and equipment they use testify to the technical
bombers have not helped blur the distinction between advancement of their society, and to the ability of its
soldier and civilian — suffer uncertainty and grief. Emo- industry to supply arms and ammunition in the required
tions and opinions are polarized: reasonable people do quantity and quality. The skills of their commanders, and
unreasonable things. Some, soldiers and civilians alike, of the staff officers who serve them, may be decisive on the

find war to be the high point of their lives: they respond day of battle, but they too demand careful and lengthy
eagerly to its challenges, relish its comradeship and find preparation.
6