The Walakpa Site, Alaska

244 Pages·2006·13.5 MB·English

The Walakpa Site, Alaska
ITS PLACE IN THE BIRNIRK
AND THULE CULTURES
Dennis J. Stanford
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY
NUMBER 20
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SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY • NUMBER 2 0
The Walakpa Site, Alaska
ITS PLACE IN THE BIRNIRK AND THULE CULTURES
Dennis J. Stanford
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS
CITY OF WASHINGTON
1976
ABSTRACT
Stanford, Dennis J. The Walakpa Site, Alaska: Its Place in the Birnirk and Thule
Cultures. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, number 20, 226 pages,
29 figures, 119 plates, 10 tables, 1976.—An archeological survey directed by the
author near Point Barrow, Alaska, during the summer of 1968 resulted in the
discovery of Walakpa, a deeply stratified coastal Eskimo site. It contained over
20 occupation levels, showing the development of Eskimo culture from Birnirk
to Thule, as well as earlier and later Eskimo occupation levels. On the basis of
excavations at Walakpa during 1968 and 1969, previous estimates of Birnirk and
Thule origins are reexamined and a new interpret tion of the genesis of this
Eskimo culture proposed.
Specifically, on the basis of the Point Barrow excavations, this monograph
(1) examines the development of the Birnirk and Thule Eskimo cultures and (2)
provides definitions for the horizon markers for each of the Eskimo stages repre
sented at Walakpa. As a result of this detailed study, the author concludes that
(1) Birnirk developed out of Old Bering Sea; (2) Birnirk can be divided into three
phases: Early, A.D. 500-700, Middle, A.D. 700-800, and Late, A.D. 800-900; (3)
Thule Eskimo culture developed directly out of Birnirk; and (4) the development
from Birnirk to Thule took place because of over-utilization of seals as the primary
food resource and a change to a warmer climatic regime that further depleated
the already weak seal resource, resulting in an increased use of whales for food
and an expansion of hunting territories to the east.
OFFICIAL PUBLICATION DATE is handstamped in a limited number of initial copies and is
recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Stanford, Dennis J.
The Walakpa site, Alaska.
(Smithsonian contributions to anthropology ; no. 20)
Bibliography: p.
1. Walakpa site, Alaska. I. Title. II. Series.
GN1.S54 no. 20 E99.E7 979.8'7 74-32434
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $4.30 (paper cover)
Stock Number 047-000-00330-0
Contents
Page
PREFACE xi
INTRODUCTION 1
Origins of Thule Eskimo Culture 1
Geophysical Conditions 3
Geology 3
Physiography and Ecology 3
Low Tundra Ecosystem 4
Marine Ecosystem 5
Pond and River Ecosystems 7
Prehistoric Climates and Climatic Change 7
Modern Climatic Conditions 8
SITE DESCRIPTION 10
Stratigraphy 10
A Area 12
B Area _ 13
Archeological Excavations of the Walakpa Site 14
1968 Excavation 14
1969 Excavation 15
Additional Excavations in the Walakpa Bay Area 16
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS 18
Hunting and Fishing Equipment 18
Harpoon Gear 18
Harpoon Heads 18
Harpoon End Blades 23
Harpoon Foreshafts 24
Harpoon Shafts 25
Harpoon Ice Picks 25
Seal Poke Gear 26
Float Bars 26
Seal Float Mouthpieces 26
Seal Float Mouthpiece Stoppers 26
Seal Float Plugs 27
Detachable Lance Points 27
Ice Hunting Gear 27
Wound Plugs 27
Wound Pins 27
Ice Scoops 27
Two-Piece Ice Scoops 28
Seal Drag Handles 28
Seal Scratchers 28
Seal Rattles 29
Nets and Net Weights 29
Atlatl Equipment 29
Atlatl Dart Boards 29
Atlatl Hooks 29
Dart Shafts and Butt Pieces 29
Harpoon Socket Pieces 30
iii
IV SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 20
Page
Inflation Nozzles 30
Bird Dart Points and Side Prongs 30
Harpoon Dart Heads 31
Bow and Arrow Equipment 31
Bows 31
Marlin Spikes 31
Sinew Twisters 31
Arrowshafts 32
Feather-Cutting Boards 33
Antler Arrowheads 33
Antler Arrowhead Preforms 37
Chipped Flint Arrowheads 37
Bola Weights 38
Miscellaneous Hunting Gear 39
Snow-Probe Ferrules 39
Ice Staff Rings 39
Snow Shovels 39
Snow Knives 39
Wooden Hunting Hats 39
Snow Goggles 40
Fish Arrow Prongs 41
Fishing Poles 41
Transportation Equipment 41
Boat Parts 41
Boat Paddles 41
Paddle Tips 41
Umiak Parts 43
Kayak Ribs 43
Kayak Cockpit Frames 43
Sled Parts 43
Antler Arches 43
Sled Shoes 44
Harness Swivels 44
Miscellaneous Boat or Sled Parts 44
Manufacture, Maintenance, and Processing of Equipment 44
Men's Knives 44
Crooked Knives 44
Knives with End Blade Slots 45
Composite Knives 46
Knife Blades 46
Whetstones 48
Flint Flakers and Hammerstones 48
Flaker Points 48
Hammerstones 49
Bone Hammerheads 49
Engraving Tools 49
Bow Drills 49
Firemaking Equipment 50
Drill Bearings 50
Fire Drill Platforms 50
Fire Drill Spindles 50
Adzes 50
Adz Handles 50
Adz Blades 50
CONTENTS
Page
Sleeves 51
Whale Rib Tools 51
Mattock Blades 51
Whale Rib Ice Picks 51
Whale Rib Mattocks or Pick Handles 52
Wedges 52
Ulus 52
Ulu Handles 52
Ulu Blades 53
Scrapers 53
Planoconvex End Scrapers 53
Pebble End Scrapers 53
Side Scrapers 54
Scraper Handles 55
Split Pebble Scrapers 55
Two-handed Scrapers 55
Scapula Scrapers 55
Miscellaneous Metapodial Scrapers 55
Humerus Scraper 56
Miscellaneous Bone Scrapers 56
Hide Pegs 56
Ladles and Spoons 56
Marrow Extractors 56
Wooden Trays 57
Pottery Lamps and Cooking Vessels 57
Baleen Buckets 57
Wooden Bucket Bottoms 57
Complete Baleen Buckets 58
Bone Crushers 58
Awls and Bodkins 58
Gauged Drills 59
Stone Drill Bits 59
Awl Handles 60
Bone Needles 60
Community Activity Artifacts and Equipment 60
Perforated Teeth 60
Beads 60
Labrets 61
Drums 61
Toys 62
Cup and Pin Game 62
Inserted Seal Vertebrae 62
Dolls 62
Toy Kayaks 62
Gaming Pieces 63
Toy Bows 63
Charms and Amulets 63
Bear Jaws 64
Miscellaneous and Unidentified Artifacts 64
Belt Toggles 64
Ivory Chains 65
Unidentified Ivory Artifacts 65
Miscellaneous Coal 65
Unidentified Bone Artifacts 65
Vi SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 20
Page
Unidentified Wooden Artifacts 66
Unidentified Baleen Artifacts 67
Miscellaneous Stone Artifacts 67
FAUNAL ANALYSIS 69
Introduction 69
Procedure 69
Measurements 72
Analysis by Archeological Level and Cultural Units 75
Seals 76
Caribou 81
Whale 86
Polar Bears 86
Dog, Fox, and Wolf 86
Other Mammals and Birds 87
ARCHEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE WALAKPA CULTURAL UNITS 88
Historic Point Barrow Eskimo 88
Archeological Considerations 89
The Chronology of the Walakpa Site 90
Cultural Analysis 90
Birnirk 90
Early Thule 92
Late Thule 93
COMPARISON OF WALAKPA AND OTHER BIRNIRK AND THULE SITES 96
Northern Alaska 97
Western Alaska 102
St. Lawrence Island 103
Siberia 104
Canadian Arctic 104
Greenland 106
Summary 107
Early Birnirk 107
Middle Birnirk 107
Late Birnirk 107
Early Thule 109
Late Thule 109
DEVELOPMENT OF BIRNIRK AND THULE CULTURES IN NORTHERN ALASKA Ill
LITERATURE CITED 115
PLATES 119
Tables
1. Climatic data from Point Barrow 9
2. Hunting and fishing equipment 42
3. Transportation equipment 44
4. Manufacture, maintenance, and processing equipment 61
5. Community activity artifacts and equipment 65
6. Distribution of bones of various species of animals 70
7. Distribution of bones of the various species of birds 72
8. Distribution of selected bone elements for polar bear, bearded seal, and walrus .... 87
9. Summary of the occurrence of various Birnirk and Early Thule harpoon types .... 94
10. Summary of artifacts and faunal remains 99
CONTENTS Vll
Illustrations
FIGURES
Page
1. Summary of climatic data for the Arctic 8
2. Temperature-wind-chill index 8
3. Eskimo archeological sites in the vicinity of Point Barrow 10
4. Topographic map of Walakpa site 11
5. Schematic profile showing correlation of the stratigraphy of the A and B areas ... 12
6. A area stratigraphy 13
7. B area stratigraphy 14
8. Contour map of the A and B areas 16
9. Seal humerus showing the distal condylar width and articular length 74
10. Seal femur showing distal condylar width and notch length 74
11. Seal tibia showing diaphyseal length 74
12. Seal bones from Walakpa site 77
13. Seal bones from Walakpa site 78
14. Seal bones from Walakpa site 79
15. Seal bones from Walakpa site 80
16. Seal bones from Walakpa site 81
17. Caribou bones from Walakpa site 82
18. Caribou bones from Walakpa site 83
19. Caribou bones from Walakpa site 84
20. Caribou bones from Walakpa site 85
21. Caribou bones from Walakpa site 86
22. Seasonal options and their general geographic location 88
23. B-9 occupation floor showing logs 91
24. Plan of house floor from B-8 occupation level 92
25. B-6 occupation floor 93
26. A-5 occupation floor showing possible tent structure 93
27. Occurrence of antler arrowhead ownership marks 93
28. Polar projection of the locations of Birnirk, and Early and Late Thule sites 98
29. Development of harpoon heads and antler arrowhead types 108
PLATES
1. Walakpa site.
2. Walakpa site.
3. Walakpa site A area.
4. Early Thule levels in B area.
5. Birnirk Occupation Level B-8.
6. Birnirk artifacts from the mound A test trench.
7. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench.
8. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench.
9. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench.
10. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench.
11. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench.
12. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench.
13. Small bow from the mound B Birnirk level test trench.
14. Birnirk artifacts from the mound B test trench.
15. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
16. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
17. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
18. Birnirk seal rattle, level B-10.
Viii SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 20
19. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
20. Wooden hunting hat, level B-10.
21. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
21. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
22. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
23. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
24. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
25. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
26. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
27. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
28. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
29. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
30. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
31. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
32. Wooden meat tray, level B-10.
33. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
34. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
35. Drum rim, level B-10.
36. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
37. Birnirk artifacts, level B-10.
38. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9.
39. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9.
40. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9.
41. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9.
42. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9.
43. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9.
44. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9.
45. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9.
46. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9.
47. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9.
48. Birnirk artifacts, level B-9.
49. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8.
50. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8.
51. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8.
52. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8.
53. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8.
54. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8.
55. Baleen bucket, level B-8.
56. Polar bear mandible tied with Baleen cord, level B-8.
57. Birnirk artifacts, level B-8.
58. Early Thule artifacts from the mound A test trench.
59. Early Thule artifacts from the mound B test trench.
60. Early Thule polar bear carvings from the mound B test trench.
61. Early Thule artifacts from the mound B test trench.
62. Early Thule artifacts from the mound B test trench.
63. Early Thule artifacts, level B-7.
64. Early Thule artifacts, level B-7.
65. Early Thule artifacts, level B-7.
66. Early Thule artifacts, level B-7.
67. Early Thule artifacts, level B-7.
68. Early Thule artifacts, level B-6.
69. Early Thule artifacts, level B-6.
70. Early Thule artifacts, level B-6.
71. Early Thule artifacts, level B-6.