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religions Article The Virgin Mary in the Early Modern Italian Writings of Vittoria Colonna, Lucrezia Marinella, and Eleonora Montalvo JenniferHaraguchi DepartmentofFrenchandItalian,BrighamYoungUniversity,3134JFSB,Provo,UT84602,USA; [email protected] Received:25October2017;Accepted:5February2018;Published:13February2018 Abstract: The Marian writings of the Roman poet Vittoria Colonna (1490/92-1547), the Venetian polemicist Lucrezia Marinella (1579–1653)1, and the Florentine educator Eleonora Montalvo (1602–1659)presentanaccessiblemodeloftheVirginMaryintheearlymodernperiodthatbothlay andreligiouswomencouldemulateinordertostrengthentheirindividualspirituality. Whilethe CatholicChurchencouragedwomentoacceptandimitateanidealoftheVirginMary’scharacter traitsandbehaviorforthegoodofsociety,thesethreewomenwritersconstructedamorefruitful narrativeoftheVirgin’slifeandexperiencethatincludedelementsandimagerythatwouldempower womentoenhancetheirpersonalpracticeofmeditation. Keywords: Italian women writers; Vittoria Colonna; Lucrezia Marinella; Eleonora Montalvo; Virgin Mary; Early Modern Italy; Counter-Reformation; conduct literature; Catholic Meditation; IgnatianSpirituality In sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Christian Europe, ecclesiastical leaders disagreed on the power of the Virgin Mary to effectuate salvation: Catholics promoted Mary’s intercessory role, whereas Protestants considered it heresy to pray to the Virgin, choosing instead to focus on Mary’s position as a recipient of God’s grace, a mortal woman full of faith and worthy of emulation (Bruni and Wirz 2012; Gambero 2012). While Catholic clerics reinforced the medieval perception of Mary as the Virgin Mother and Queen of Heaven, they also encouraged women to adoptMary’svirtuousattributesforthegoodofsociety. Cullingtheirideasfromthescripturesand suchapocryphaltextsastheProtevangeliumofJames,theGospelofPseudo-Matthew,andtheLegenda AureaofJacopusdeVaragine,Catholicpreachersandwritersofnumerousworksonthelifeofthe VirginemphasizedMary’sobedience,modesty,andsubmissivenessascharacteristicsofgoodfemale behavioranddecorum. Similarly,earlymodernwomenblurredthelinesbetweenpietyandmanners whenwritingabouttheVirginMary,buttheyalsoidentifiedwaysinwhichMaryandthesaintswere powerfulexamples,onahumanlevel,offemalespirituality. Inanadvanced-levelundergraduateseniorseminaronEarlyModernItalianWomenWriters, my goal as a teacher is to outline the expectations that men placed on women while encouraging studentstoidentifyandappreciatetheuniquewaysinwhichwomenwriters—andnotjustnunswho wroteonspiritualmatters,butlaywomenaswell—soughttocreatetheirowntemplateoftheideal spiritualwoman. Amongtheworksstudiedinthisseminar,weanalyzethreeMariancompositions writtenbylaywomen: PiantodellaMarchesadiPescarasopralapassionediChristobytheRomanpoet Vittoria Colonna (1490/92–1547), La vita di Maria Vergine Imperatrice dell’Universo by the Venetian polemicistLucreziaMarinella(1579–1653),andVitadellaSantissimaVergineMariabytheFlorentine 1 VirginiaCox2011,(n.5,p.271)proposesamendingMarinella’sbirthdatefrom1571to1579. Religions2018,9,59;doi:10.3390/rel9020059 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions2018,9,59 2of13 educator Eleonora Montalvo (1602–1659).2 These compositions, written in three different genres (plaint,3biography,anddramaticperformance),attesttotheingenuityoflaywriters. Notwithstanding theconstraintsplacedontheirgender,thesewomenwritersdesignedamoreintricateandempowering representationoftheVirginMarythanthetraditionalmodel,whichfocusedsolelyonMarianattributes thatwomencouldemulateinordertomakethemselvesusefulandpleasingtoamale-dominated society. Colonna’s,Marinella’s,andMontalvo’swritingsontheVirginMaryemphasizeindividual meditation,oneofthefewspheresinwhichearlymodernwomenwerefreetoshapetheirownnotion ofwhatconstitutespersonaldevotion. I teach these Marian writings in a three-week segment of a fourteen-week senior seminar for majors and minors of Italian at Brigham Young University (BYU).4 I begin this part of the course by having my students read Susan Haskins’s succinct history of the Virgin Mary in the “Volume Editor’s Introduction” (Haskins 2008, pp. 4–41) of her translated edition of the works of Vittoria Colonna,ChiaraMatraini,andLucreziaMarinella,fortheseriesTheOtherVoiceinEarlyModern Europe,entitledWhoisMary? ThreeEarlyModernWomenontheIdeaoftheVirginMary. Haskins’sbrief history provides an excellent overview of the theology and cultural interpretation of Mary in the scriptures,theEasternChurch,theWesternChurch,theApocrypha,theMiddleAges,andtheCounter Reformation. Inordertostructureourdiscussionsontheinterconnectednessofwrittenandvisual culturesandtohelpstudentsunderstandthepowerofMary’simageinearlymodernvisualculture, I require one student to give a 3–5 min presentation at the beginning of each class period of the three-week duration on an assigned section of Haskins’s history of Mary as it relates to two or threeimagesoftheVirginfromtheearlymodernperiodthattheyhave“pinned”onourclass’sPinterest board.5 For their presentations, I ask students to interpret the images they have selected as they correspond to the various phases of the history of Mary and to consider how art may have been implementedtoreinforcedogma,particularlyduringtheCounterReformationwhentheCouncilof Trenturgedartiststoillustrate,andtherebyadvocate,thedoctrinesoftheImmaculateConception, theconceptionandbirthofChrist,Mary’sperpetualvirginity,andtheAssumptionandCoronationof Mary. SomeoftheimagesIfindparticularlyeffectiveindemonstratingMary’srolethroughhistory are the late thirteenth-century mosaic in the conch of the central apse of Santa Maria Maggiore in RomerepresentingMaryenthronedastheQueenofHeavenasshesitsbesideChrist(toreinforcethe medievalconceptionofMaryasReginacoeli),Correggio’ssixteenth-centuryfrescooftheAssumption oftheVirgininthedomeoftheCathedralofParma(toillustratethedoctrinesoftheAssumption, Incarnation,Intercession,andTransubstantiation),andthesixteenth-centuryMadonnadelPopoloby FedericoBarocci,depictingtheVirginintercedingwithChristinheavenforthecommonpeopleon earth. Barocci’spaintingtellinglyportraysproperfemalesocietalduties,asthemotherinthelower lefthandcornerattemptstoinspireMariandevotioninherchildren. Iconsiderthesepresentations 2 IhavemystudentsreadVittoriaColonna’sandLucreziaMarinella’scompositionsintranslation(Colonna2008;Marinella2008). ForEleonoraMontalvo’sdramaticversehagiographywereadmyItaliantranscription(Iampreparingacriticaleditionand translationofMontalvo’sunpublishedworksfortheseriesTheOtherVoiceinEarlyModernEurope). 3 WhileColonna’stextwaspublishedwiththetitleof“plaint”(aliterarycompositionofcomplaintorlamentation),itwas originallyconceivedasalettertoBernardinoOchinoandconsideredameditationonChrist’sPassioninthemanuscript tradition(Haskins2008,p.49).EleonoraCarinci(2016,pp.404–5)indicatesthatthetitlePiantomayhavebeenaddedlater topublishededitionsofthetext. 4 In this course on early modern Italian women writers, we study selected works of varying genres (letter, treatise, dialogue, biography, plaint, drama): Alessandra Macinghi Strozzi’s Lettere (Macinghi Strozzi 1997, 2016); ArcangelaTarabotti’sInfernomonacale(Tarabotti1990)orherTiranniapaterna(Tarabotti2004);ModerataFonte’sIlmerito delledonne(Fonte1997);VittoriaColonna’sPiantodellaMarchesadiPescarasopralapassionediChristo(Colonna2008);Lucrezia Marinella’sLavitadiMariaVergineImperatricedell’Universo(Marinella2008);EleonoraMontalvo’sVitadellaSantissimaVergine Maria,andAntoniaPulci’sLarappresentazionediSantaDomitillaandLarappresentazionediSantaGuglielma(Pulci2010). ThroughoutthesemesterIalsohavemystudentsreadselectionsfromthesourcebook,WomeninItaly,1350-1650:Idealsand Realities(RogersandTinagliand2005),regardingissuespertainingtowomen(i.e.,lifecycles,roles,discourseofbeautyand love,etc.). 5 Seehttps://www.pinterest.com/jharaguchi7475/vergine-maria-ital-495r/. Religions2018,9,59 3of13 essentialforsettingthestageatthebeginningofeachclassperiodforclosereadingsofthetextsand ourdiscussionson(a)howtheCatholicChurchcreatedandfosteredaMarianidealasameansto improvesocietyand(b)howthevisualartsmayhaveinfluencedColonna,Marinella,andMontalvoto writeinwaysthatwouldhelpwomenstrengthentheirprivatemeditativepractices. 1. TheMaleIdeal: TheWell-BehavedMary OneofthefirstpointsImakewithmystudentsaboutthemodelofa“well-behavedMary”is thatartwasapowerfulforceinshapingit. Followingeachstudent’spresentation,wereviewasa classsomeoftheimagesonourPinterestboardandconsidertheCouncilofTrent’schargetopromote artisticdepictionsforpedagogicalpurposes: ... letthebishopsdiligently teachthatbymeansofthe storiesofthemysteriesofour redemptionportrayedinpaintingsandotherrepresentationsthepeopleareinstructedand confirmedinthearticlesoffaith,whichoughttobeborneinmindandconstantlyreflected upon... sothatthey... fashiontheirownlifeandconductinimitationofthesaintsand bemovedtoadoreandloveGodandcultivatepiety(Schroeder1941,pp. 215–16). ByanalyzingartisticdepictionsofMary,mystudentscometoseeadevelopmentinthetransition fromtheregalMaryoftheMiddleAgestothemorerelatableimageofMaryfromthefifteenththrough theseventeenthcenturies. AsAnnabelThomashaspositedinherstudyofthelifeoftheVirginin conventualart,artisticdepictionsofMarycomprisetwocategories: (1)theVirginportrayedinallher majesticandcelestialglory;and(2)theVirginpresentedasobedientandhumblethroughtheinclusion ofmorepersonal,intimatedetails(Thomas2003,p. 120). Throughabriefanalysisoftheworksofart thatwehaveplacedonPinterest,mystudentsseehowearlymodernimagesoftheVirginfocused lessontheparadoxicalandunattainableidealofMaryasbothvirginandmotherandmoreonan accessibleandfamiliarmotherMarywhoseobedience,modesty,andsubmissivenesscouldbeimitated forthegoodofsociety. Ialsopointouttomystudentsthatpublicsermonsplayedanimportantpartinconstructing the“well-behavedMary”ideal. OneofthemostfamousexamplescitedbyhistoriansconsidersSan Bernardino’spreachinginfifteenth-centurySienawhenhecommentsspecificallyonMary’sbehavioral traits. Heencourageswomenandgirlstostayathome,astheVirgindid,andneveratthewindow, butshutawayintheirroomsinsteadreadingpiousmaterial: Oyougirls,learnhowyoushouldstayathome,andbewareofwhoeverentersthehouse, asyouseethattheVirginMarystayedshutaway,andalwayswishedtoseewhowanted tocomeinandwhy... ButwemustsaywheretheAngelfoundher. Wheredoyouthink shewas? Atthewindow,orinvolvedinsomeothervanity? Ohno! Shestayedshutaway inherchamber,andwasreading,tosetanexampletoyou,mygirl,nottoenjoystanding orleaningoutofthewindow,buttostayathome,sayingtheAveMariaorPaternosteror, ifyoucanread,readinggood,piousmaterial(RogersandTinagliand2005,p. 45). SanBernardinoalsodrawsonthefourteenth-centuryartistSimoneMartini’sdepictionofthe Annunciation in the cathedral (now in the Uffizi) to encourage his female congregants to keep Mary’s“fearfulpose”(infrontoftheAngelGabriel)inmindwhenspeakingwithmen: HaveyouseenthatAnnunciationsceneinthecathedral,atthealtarofStSano,besidethe Sacristy? Thatcertainlyseemstometohavethefinest,themostreverentandmodestpose I’veeverseeninanAnnunciation. Look: she’snotlookingattheAngel,butisinanalmost fearfulpose. Sheknewquitewellitwasanangel,sowhyshouldshebealarmed? What wouldshehavedoneifithadbeenaman? Followthisexample,girls,ofwhatyoushould do. Neverspeaktoamanunlessyourfatherormotherispresent(ibid.). Asaclassweevaluatethispainting,discussinghowSanBernardino’scommentechoestheadvice ofcontemporaryconductmanualsinstructingwomentobetimidandhumbleinthepresenceofmen. Religions2018,9,59 4of13 TheconnectionIendeavortomakebetweenart,sermons,andconductliteratureleadstoanother essentialclassdiscussiononthepoweroftheprintedwordinshapingsocietalexpectationsofthe “well-behavedMary.”Therecentstudy,ConductLiteratureforandaboutWomeninItaly,indicatesthat 31.3%ofthe208titlesoftractsonvariousargumentspublishedbyGiolito’spressbetween1536and 1606wereconductmanuals(SansonandLucioli2016,p. 16). Oneofthecoreelementsoftheearly modernperiodwaseducation,andclericsandwriterstookadvantageoftheprintingpresstodiffuse educationalprinciplesthatwouldreformthechurchandtheworld. Evokingthecivilizingprecepts of the humanist educational treatises of the previous century (i.e.,FrancescoBarbaro’sDereuxoria [1416],MatteoPalmieri’sDellavitacivile[1431–1438],andLeonBattistaAlberti’sIlibridellafamiglia [1433–1434]),Counter-Reformationwritersreinforcedthebehavioraltraitsandeducationalprinciples foundintheseseculartextsforareligiouspurpose,conflatingmannersandpietyintheirownwritings.6 AsIleadmystudentsinourdiscussionofconductliterature,providingexcerptsfromsomeofthe manuals,IalsomakethemawareoftheproliferationofMariantextsinthelatesixteenthandearly seventeenth centuries, many on the life of the Virgin Mary, written by priests of various religious orders,whichreinforcemoralanddidacticprinciplesfoundinconductmanuals(Carinci2013,p. 362). The authors of these spiritual texts make it clear that proper female devotion depends on proper behavior: they advise mothers, wives, and nuns to emulate Mary’s humility, meekness, silence, passivity,obedience,timidity,andmodestandprudentspeech. Theauthorsalsopersuadewomento readthepsalmsanddoneedlework,practicesthat,accordingtotheapocryphaltexts,helpedMary avoididleness. Byconsideringtheunderlyingculturalforcesatworkinthemakingofthe“well-behavedMary,” mystudentsareinabetterpositiontoanalyzehowandwhyMarinellachosetoreinforcethisidealin LavitadiMariaVergineImperatricedell’Universo,publishedinVenicein1602(withasubsequentedition in1604,areprintofthiseditionin1610,andanothereditionin1617).7 Marinellawouldhavebeen familiarwithconductliteratureandsermonsthaturgedawomantokeepherhonorandvirtuesafeby notgoingoutaloneinpublic,andItellmystudentsthatitishighlyprobablethatMarinellawouldhave alsoseenartisticdepictions,suchastheGiottofrescoesintheCappelladegliScrovegniinPadova,8 whichportrayMaryandhercousinElizabethinthecompanyofothers. InLavitadiMariaVergine, Marinellafollowsthisdirective,borrowingdirectlyfromPietroAretino’sVitadiMariaVergine(1539),9 byhavingAnna, themotherofMary, gowithcompanionswhenshetravelstomeetherhusband; Mary,too,makesthejourneytovisitElizabethinthecompanyofotherwomen.10 Similarly,Marinella reiteratestheprescriptiveadvicegiventowomeninconductliteratureontheimportanceofprayer andself-mortificationwhenshestatesthat“despiteheryouth,[Mary]fastedoften,andwasalways praying”(Marinella2008,p. 146)and“[s]heatesparingly,andonlyasmuchfoodaswashumanly necessary”(p. 149).11 Marinellaalsoreinforcesthemaleidealbyaccentuatingthenegativeaspects ofundesirablecharactertraitsinwomen: “Swollenpride,punishabletalkativeness,impetuousrage, andtenacityofgreedwereallfarremovedfrom[Mary]”(ibid.). Inaddition,Mary’sdress,asindicated bymaleinstruction,wasmodest,simple,andpure: “Sheshone,notamongthepurplesandgolds 6 OttaviaNiccoli(1994)arguesthatCounter-Reformationtreatises,suchasSilvioAntoniano’sTrelibridell’educazionecristiana (1584),madeuniqueeffortstolinkrulesofcomportmentandpietywiththeaimofreformingtheChurchandsociety. 7 (Haskins2008,p.120).ThefirsteditionincludesanepicpoeminottavarimathatMarinellawroteonthesamesubject.Inthis coursewereadonlytheproseversion. 8 See(Jacobus1998)foraconvincingdiscussionontherelationshipbetweendevotionaltexts,conductliterature,andartin thischapel. 9 See(Carinci2013)forfurtherevidenceofMarinella’semulationofAretino’stext.Seealso(Aretino2011). 10 SusanHaskins(2008, p. 125)statesthat“AnnagoestomeetJoachim‘togetherwithsomerespectedwomen,’ asno ‘respectable’ woman would be allowed out without a female companion (p. 140);” and “similarly, Mary, going to visitElizabeth,takes‘twoelderlywomen,’Anna’soldservants,withher,presumablyinheritedonhermother’sdeath, andpossiblyamarkoffamilycontinuity(p.168).” 11 Atthispointwehaveabriefdiscussionontheimportanceofself-mortificationintheearlymodernperiod.Forfurther informationsee(Bell1985;Bynum1987). Religions2018,9,59 5of13 beneathwhichtheswollenvanitiesofwomenareconcealed,butamongthewhitenessandsimplicity ofapure,plainsinglerobe... inthepurityofsuchagarment,sheappearedalmostanangel,shining inthewhitenessofhisheavenlytunic”(p. 152). Finally,MarinelladepictsanindustriousMarywho notonlyshunsidlenesswhileresidinginEgyptbutwhoisascommittedasJosephtoprovidefortheir refugeefamily: With the integrity of his craft, Joseph obtained a little of the food our nature needs for itspreservation. Ashewasaforeignerheearnedlittle. However,ingreatpovertythey survived. TheVirgin,too,whomHeavenelectedasitsqueen,wasinthestraitsofnecessity, butbypracticingthevirtuesofembroideryandlace-making,whichsheknewhowtodo verywell,shemadetheirgreatpovertyalittlelessburdensome(p. 194). Here,MarinellapresentsMaryassheisoftendepictedinearlymodernpaintings,engagingin sophisticatedneedleworkthatwastypicaloftheupperclasses,incontrasttothefourteenth-century pseudo-BonaventuranrepresentationoftheVirginMarywhoperformsbasicandessentialsewingand spinningtohelpprovideforherfamily’sneedsinEgypt(RagusaandGreen1961,pp. 69,75). AswereadtheseexcerptsfromMarinella’sLavitadiMariaVergine,mystudentsandIconsider thefollowingquestions: WhydoesMarinella’stextreinforceandpromoteexamplesofthemaleideal regardingfemalebehavior? DoesMarinellaendorsethisidealandcreateasimilarprescriptivetextof herownforwomen? OrdoesMarinellaproposeanythingdistinctiveoutsideofthemale-designed blueprintforwomen? MystudentsoftenrespondthatMarinellaprobablyfeltconstrainedtocraft an ideal of the Virgin that was consonant with societal expectations and acceptable to her male peers. IagreethatMarinellamayhavefashionedherparticularversionoftheVirginaccordingto the“well-behaved”Marianidealespousedbymeninordertogainapprovalfromamaleaudience. However,itisimportantthatweestablishthatMarinellaalsotransformsMaryintoanactivespiritual rolemodelforwomen—onewho,forexample,wasalways“discussingholymatters”atayoungage (Marinella2008,p. 146),whichwasnotanobviousfemaletrait. Marinella,likeColonnaandMontalvo, profilesMary’sknowledge,understanding,andskillfulpracticeoffemalespiritualityandindicates thatMaryconstitutesanattainableexemplarforwomenasonewhodemonstrateshowandonwhat tomeditateinordertogetclosertoGod. 2. TheFemaleIdeal: TheMeditativeMary AswebegintoanalyzetheuniqueaspectsofMarinella’s, Colonna’s, andMontalvo’sMarian writingsthatemphasizeandpromotemeditationthroughanexampleofapensiveanddidacticMary, I find it necessary to help students understand that certain ideas, favorable to women, circulated duringthesixteenthcentury,notwithstandingaseeminglyall-encompassingoppressiveclimate.12 Thefollowingexampleillustrateshowwomenbenefitedfromamodificationtoreligiousthought. Influencedbyevangelicalideas,Catholicclergyadviseddevoteestoveerawayfromthemedieval imitatioChristi,whichtheyrealizedwasanimpossiblepatterntofollow,andtowardstheimitationof Mary,amortalbeing,andherapproachablefaithandmeditationpractices,amoreaccessibleparadigm onthepathwaytoChrist(Brundin2008,p. 142). Women(bothlayandreligious)embracedthistype ofreligiositysinceitinvolvedamorerealistic,relatablerolemodelforthemtoemulate. Inasermon deliveredinVenicein1539,theCapuchinpreacherBernardinoOchinoencouragedcongregantsto imitateMary’sexampleoffaithandcontemplation: 12 Contemporaryscholarship,followinginthefootstepsofVirginiaCox’sgroundbreakingstudiesonwomen’swritingin Counter-ReformationItaly,whichciteoversixtypublishedworksbywomenbetween1580and1630,ismoreinclinedto examineculturalelementsofthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesthatfostered,ratherthansuppressed,femalecreativity (Cox2008,2011). Religions2018,9,59 6of13 TheVirginMary,theholyvirgin,wastheonewhomostperfectlyandbetterthananyother creature contemplated Christ hung upon the cross with a living faith in the manner in whichwetooshouldcontemplatehim(Ochino1541,fol. 27v.).13 Ochino’s sermons and emphasis on the imitation of Mary—as opposed to imitatio Christi—appealed to Colonna and other women who were seeking a role model who was more definitiveandpertinenttothemaswomen.Ochino’sstatementfocusesontheimportanceofemulating Mary, especially in the way she contemplated Christ. Similarly, the Marian writings of Colonna, Marinella,andMontalvounderscorehowwellMaryperformsmeditationandcontemplationand proposethesepracticesasspecificwaysinwhichwomenmayimitateMary. Drawinginspirationfrom thevisualartsandcontemporarytextsonmeditation,thesethreewritersillustratehowMaryprovides apowerfulrolemodelforwomenwhoseektoimprovetheirindividualandpersonaldevotiontoGod. Inordertobeabletoidentifyandanalyzetextualelementsthatfostermeditationinthewritings of these three laywomen, students should understand the importance of meditation and how it was practiced in the early modern tradition of affective piety.14 I explain that this tradition was widelyavailablethroughthreeprimaryavenues: meditativeliterature(specifically, theinfluential fourteenth-centurypseudo-BonaventuranMeditationesvitaeChristi,usuallyattributedtotheFranciscan Johannes de Caulibus, and the popular genre of Rosary meditations, which included images to facilitate meditation); the devotio moderna movement that originated in the Netherlandsin the late fourteenth century, which encouraged followers to participate in the Passion of Christ through vicariousexperience; andtheJesuitteachingofIgnatiusofLoyola’sExercitiaSpiritualia,published in1548,afour-weekprogramofmeditationsonthesinfullifeofmanandthelifeofChrist. Ishare passagesfromthepseudo-BonaventuranMeditationes,aguidebookonmeditationandcontemplation (thetermsareusedinterchangeablyinthistext)whenexplainingthatthepowerofmentalimages leadsonetoahigherlevelofdevotion(RagusaandGreen1961). IalsopresentexcerptsofIgnatius’s ExercitiaSpiritualiatoillustratethestepsthefaithfulmusttakeinthemeditativeprocessthatwilllead themtospiritualself-reformation: thefirstphaseconsistsof“seeinginimaginationthephysicalplace wherethatwhich[they]wanttocontemplateistakingplace”;next,theyshouldactivatetheirsensesin bridgingthegapbetweenChrist’seraandtheirown,consideringandanalyzingwhatthey“see”and “hear,”asiftheywereactuallypresent;finally,theyshouldsimulatea“colloquy”withChristonthe crossorwithMaryorthesaintsinordertoseekcounselandfavorsfromthem(Ganss1991). Oncemy studentsgainabetterunderstandingoftheearlymodernconceptofmeditation,theyrecognizemore easilythemeditativeaspectsofthewritingsofMarinella,Colonna,andMontalvo. Although it makes sense from a chronological perspective to have my students study Colonna’stextfirst,IprefertocontinueouranalysisofMarinella’swork(asoutlinedinthefirstsection ofthisessay)bytransitioningfromourdiscussionofMarinella’sdedicationtothemale-inspiredmodel of female comportment to consider the writer’s promotion of canonical meditation practices that encompassamoreindependentexpressionoffemalespirituality. ReadingMarinella’sLavitadiMaria Vergine,mystudentsaresurprisedbythe“extra”episodesanddetailsofMary’slifethatdonotappear intheNewTestamentaccounts,andthisopensupaconversationaboutMarinella’sapocryphalsources andthemeditativeanddevotionaltextsthatshemayhavedrawnfrominordertoenhanceparticular aspectsofMary’sbiography. AsEleonoraCarinci(2013,2016)hasdemonstrated,however,themost directsourceforMarinella’sLavitadiMariaVergineisPietroAretino’sVitadiMariaVergineandhisI quattrolibridelahumanitàdiChristo(1535),andIproposethatMarinellareiteratedexplicitandelaborate passagesfromAretino’stextsinordertoreinforcethedirectivesofIgnatius’sExercitiaSpiritualiaandthe 13 FormoreinformationonBernardinoOchino,see(Bainton1941). 14 For the information I share with my students, I have consulted (Egger 1974–2003; Gründler 1987; McNamer 2010; Freedberg1989;Smith2002). Religions2018,9,59 7of13 pseudo-BonaventuranMeditationes.15 Furthermore,hertrainingintheBaroqueliterarytraditionoflofty rhetoric,influencedbyAretino’stexts,repletewithexamplesofhyperboleandrepetition,produced an imaginative narrative that may have served as an aid to meditation.16 According to Ignatius, Christ’sNativityandPassionarethemostimportantdevotionalsubjectsonwhichtomeditateand MarinellarendersthesescenesinanexceptionallyvisualwaytosupportIgnatius’srecommendationto imaginedetailsthatmakethejourneytoBethlehemandthesceneoftheNativityvividintheirminds (Ganss1991,pp.149–50).Marinella’sdescriptionofthe“poorhovel,orlittlehut,theshelterforanimals belongingtosomeshepherds”(Marinella2008,p. 173),borrowedfromPietroAretino’sIquattrolibride lahumanitàdiChristo(pp. 11r-v),employstheevocativedetailofanearlymodernpainting: Itwastheplace,asitiswritten,beneaththelowlinessofwhichtheyretired,theruinofa building,theancientnessofwhichhadbeenthrowntothegroundbyJoseph’sweakarm, assomepiecesofbrokencolumnsandsomewallsborewitness. Ivyandthorns,intheir arrogance, had taken over others’ rights. Part of the building was still upright, thanks totheshepherds’care,andwascoveredbyreedssetuprusticallywithleavesandroots. Thesewereheldupabovesomebeams,weakenedthroughrainandage. Thedoor,which hadfallenbytheentrance,wasofentwinedwillow-treetwigs(ibid.). IndepictingChrist’sPassion,MarinellareinforcesIgnatius’schargetoactivatethesensesduring meditationwhenshepresentsagraphicdescriptionofChrist’scrucifixionthatmayproducefeelings ofsorrowandcompassioninreadersastheyimaginewhatMaryvisualizes: ThusthedisconsolateMother,whowithJohn,theMagdalen,Martha,andtheotherMarys, wasbathedinthebloodthatdrippedfromherbelovedSon’sbody,lookedonebyoneat theblows,wounds,andstabsthatcruelty’shandshadmadeinthehead,hands,andfeetof herdeadhope,andfelteveryinjury,everywound,andeverystabwoundpierceherbreast withthebitternessofsorrow,asifshehadbeenwoundedbythepiercingandcrueltyofa hundredswords(p. 218) InadditiontoportrayingthescenesofChrist’slife,Marinellaexpandstherepertoireofimagesto includeMary’svisionofthemartyrdomofthesaints,whichconformswithIgnatius’ssuggestionto meditateonanysubjectthatbringsoneclosertoChrist(Ganss1991,p. 121). Marinellarendersthese scenesinanexpressiveway,againbyaccentuatingtheBaroqueaesthetic,andthistimebydescribing explicittormentsasifunfoldingonanelaboratestage: ItseemedtothegloriousVirgin,Ithink,thatshesaw(stillboundinalightsleep),among many other things, a spacious place, like a great theater, in which there were figures in various shapes all cut by swords, with what appeared to her to be the cruelty of tyrants venting their bestial natures on the flesh and bones of those who followed in Christ’s divine footsteps. It seemed to her that these filled the fearful theater ... [and] shesawcountlessvirginswho,atthemostbeautifulandlovelyageandintheirbeauty, offeredtheirchastelimbsanddelicatebutstrongbreaststoswords,arrows,razors,flames, scourges,andpoisonousserpents,tothesavagetalonsofwildlions,tothedarknessof 15 AccordingtoPaoloMarini(MariniandAretino2011,p.65),thetendencyofPietroAretino(1540,2011)tovividdescription inhisreligiousworksisheavilyinfluencedbythetraditionofMeditationesvitaeChristi.Itwouldbeaninterestingresearch projectforoneofmystudentstoanalyzespecificinstancesinwhichMarinellausesandmodifiesAretino’sworksto inspiremeditation. 16 IntheintroductiontoLavitadiMariaVergineImperatricedell’Universo,Marinellaprovidesanexplanationofherpoetic methodology,statingthatshefollowstheGreekepictraditioninemployingagrandandeloquentstyleofwritingto matchthemagnificenceofthesubject.TheintroductionisnotincludedinSusanHaskins’sedition,butHaskinsprovides a summary of it for her readers (Marinella 2008, pp. 122–23). Here, as Eleonora Carinci asserts, Marinella imitates PietroAretino’sdeclarationthathewrotehisVitadiMariaVergineinanelaboratemannerinordertoreflectthenobility ofthesubject.CarinciarguesthatMarinella’sbiographyoftheVirgindrawsdecisivelyonAretino’sVitadiMariaVergine, whichwasplacedontheIndexofProhibitedBooksin1557(Carinci2013). Religions2018,9,59 8of13 prisons,tohooksandcords,tothetenacityofhardchains,andwhohadsuchopenfaces in the presence of torments that it appeared to her that they desired more than feared suchmartyrdoms(Marinella2008,pp. 228-29). Inanotherinstance,Marinellaemploystheexpression“blood-filledtheater”(p. 230),whichgives startlingdistinctiontoSaintFrancis’splaceofmartyrdomandcomplementsthephrases“greattheater” and “fearful theater” in the citation above; these expressions, which evoke scenes of sensational representations, serve to further designate and classify places of extreme persecution and torture. ConcludingourdiscussionofMarinella’sbiographyofMary, Iaimtoconveytomystudentsthat Marinella’sreligioustextappropriatesthehighlydramaticandextravagantstyleofthesecularwriters ofherdayinordertodepictmemorablescenesthatproduceemotionalresponsesforthereaderand remaininthemindlongafterthereadingisover.17 AswemovebackwardsintimefromMarinella’sbiographytoColonna’sPiantodellaMarchesadi Pescara sopra la passione di Cristo, first published in Venice in 1556,18 I point out that both authors represent the practice of meditation in different ways, perhaps reflecting their contrasting eras. WhereMarinella’sCounter-Reformationtextisalmostentirelydescriptive,underscoringwhatone shouldmeditateon,Colonna’sisamoreintellectualnarrative,producedinanevangelicalera,revealing Mary’sactualthoughtsandfeelingsanddemonstratinghowMarymeditatesasshegazesatthedead Christlyinginherlap. Igivemystudentsanexampletoillustratethisdivergence. Turningbackto Marinella’stext,asnarrator,MarinellamerelywonderswhatMaryisfeelingasshecontemplatesher sononthecross: What torment was yours, O Queen of the most beautiful souls that are worthy of God’s presence? While you were by the lofty wood of the tragic Cross, perhaps you were thinking that the birds took sweet rest in their nests, the wolves and the bears in theircavesanddens,andthatyourblessedJesushadnowheretorestHiswoundedand droopingbody... (Marinella2008,p. 218) MarinellaoffersarhetoricalquestionandspeculatesthatMarysimplyrepeatsinhermindthe wordsJesusspokeduringhisministry(asrecordedinMatthew8:20andLuke9:58)toillustratethe costofdiscipleship. Colonna,ontheotherhand,inherPiantodepictsMary’sindividualconsideration ofpsychologicalandemotionalissuesinawaythatmayhaveinspiredreaderstoexpressthemselves freelyintheirownmeditativepractices. ColonnawritesthatMarywas“thinkingoverwhat[Christ] hadfeltinthathour”(Colonna2008,p. 56),andthat“inhermindsheenclosedherselfwithinthe sacredside,whencesheknewthatthesacramentsofoursomanygraceshadflowed”and“wanted everyoneintheentireworldtobeabletoseewhatshesaw,sothattheymightenjoysuchimmense grace”(p. 57);ColonnaatteststotheappropriatenessofgratitudeinmeditationasMary“thanked theheavenlyFather... shethankedtheHolySpirit... shethankedtheangels... shethankedthe sun”(p. 63).19 ColonnaismoreinsistentthanMarinellaonrevealingtheinnerthoughtsandfeelings ofMaryasshepracticesmeditation. 17 WhileMarinellafaithfullyreproducesanestablishedmodelofmeditation,acceptabletoherCounter-Reformationaudience, EleonoraCarincidemonstratesMarinella’sdeviationfromthetraditionalperspectiveofwomenbyidentifyingdetailsthat depictanactiveanddidacticMary,whichperhapswouldhaveempoweredwomenintheirpersonalstudyanddevotion. AccordingtoCarinci,Marinella’sMarymimicsAretino’sMarywhodisplaysexcellenceinmeditationandwhoalsostudies, speakswisely,andeventravels,teaches,andpreachesafterChrist’sResurrection(Carinci2013,pp.373,378). 18 Thiseditionwasthefirstoffivesixteenth-centuryeditions;itwaspublishedtogetherwiththeOrazionesopral’AveMaria, anotherprosemeditationwrittenbyColonna,aswellasananonymousorationmadeonGoodFriday,onthePassionof Christ(Haskins2008,p.49).Carinci(2016,pp.400–1)arguesthatColonnawrotethePiantoin1540–1541.Themanuscript heldintheVaticanSecretArchivesthePiantoisentitledMeditazionedelVenerdìSantoandhasanalternatetitle—Sermone sopralaVergineaddolorata—intheindexofthesearchives. 19 Someastutestudentshavepointedtothe“LamentofChrist’sMother”(Marinella2008,p. 216)inMarinella’sLavitadi MariaVergine,asanexampleofMarinella’spresentationofamoreintrospectiveMary.However,indiscussingthemedieval traditionoftheplanctusMariae,wecometotheconclusionthatthis“lament”merelyfollowsthetraditionanddoesnotoffer theuniquemeditativestancethatColonnaadoptsthroughoutherPianto. Religions2018,9,59 9of13 To illustrate further the differences between Marinella and Colonna in their depictions of the meditativeMary,IpointmystudentstopassageswhereMarinellamakesonlyfleetingreferencesto Mary’smeditationsandcontemplations,20whereasColonnanarratesmoreexplicitlyhowMarygazed onthephysicalformofChrist’s“divineface”afterhisdeathinordertocontemplatethevirtuesshe saw“depicted”inhisfacialfeaturesandspeech: Thenshemeditatedupon, evensawdepictedinthedivineface, thevestigesofcharity, obedience,humility,patience,andpeaceinthedivineface,sawfirstcharityinitstrueseat, whenHesaid: “Forgivethem,fortheyknownotwhattheydo”;patienceinsaying,“My God,myGod,whyhastthouforsakenme?”(pp. 55-56) Mary’smeditationinColonna’sPiantoderivesitsmetaphysicalaspectsfromChrist’sphysical features and from what she remembers he has said. Furthermore, Colonna’s Pianto links Mary’s empathy with her excellence in meditation: “All this shone forth in Christ’s face more to the Madonna than to others, as she suffered more passionately” (p. 56). According to Colonna, Mary“saw”morethantheothers,inametaphysicalsense,becauseshewasconcentratinginavery pointedwayinhermeditationinordertoparticipatevicariouslyinChrist’ssuffering. Isuggestthat Colonna’sMarymayhaveinspiredherfemaleaudiencetoinnovateinapersonalizedwaybecause sheexemplifieswhatDavidFreedbergdefinesasnot“somegeneralizedchannelingofthemindtothe image,butratheranattentivenessparticularizedintermsoftheintimateexperienceofthebeholder” (Freedberg1989,pp. 166-67). AtthispointIprojectanimageonthescreenofMichelangelo’sdrawing forColonna—PietàforVittoriaColonnaattheIsabellaStewartGardnerMuseuminBoston—andwe considerhowColonna’sPiantomaybeamorecomplexpsychologicalrepresentationofmeditationthan Marinella’sLaVitadiMariaVerginebecauseColonnamayhavebeenlookingatMichelangelo’sdrawing while composing it (Nagel 1997; Forcellino 2016, p. 302). We then discuss the notion in early moderncultureofthepowerofimagestofacilitatemeditation(inthiscase,Colonna’smeditationon Mary’smeditationasimaginedfromMichelangelo’sdrawing). AstheJesuitpreacherFrancisBorgia (1510-1572),aclosefriendofIgnatius,wroteintheintroductiontohisplannedbookofmeditationson theLifeofChrist,imagesplayanimportantroleinenablingadeeperandmoreconcentratedmeditation: In order to achieve greater facility in meditation, one places before oneself an image showingthegospelstory[“theevangelicalmystery”];andthus,beforecommencingthe meditation,onewillgazeupontheimageandtakeespecialcareinobservingthatwhichit hastoshow,inorderthebettertocontemplateitasonemeditates,andtoderivegreater benefitfromit;becausethefunctionoftheimageis,asitwere,togivetasteandflavourto thefoodonehastoeat,insuchawaythatoneisnotsatisfieduntilonehaseatenit;and alsoinsuchawaythatunderstandingwillreflectuponandworkonthatwhichithasto meditate,atconsiderablecostandefforttoitself. Andthistakesplacewithgreatercertainty, sincetheimageconformscloselytothegospel,andbecausemeditatingcaneasilydeceive one,asonetakesonethingforanotherandleavesoutthetracesoftheHolyGospel,which oneshouldrespectbothinsmallandlargedetails,andsoshouldnotinclineeithertoleft orright(Nicolau1949,p. 169). WhileBorgia’stextwasneverbroughttofruition,hisfriendandfellowcollaboratorwithIgnatius, JeromeNadal(1507–1580),publishedatextonmeditation,featuringillustrationstodirectthefocusof thepersonmeditatingandtolimitanydistractions,whichservedasthestandardformanydevotional worksfromtheseventeenth-centuryon(Freedberg1989,pp. 181–82).21 WhileColonna’stextdoesnot 20 “withmeditationsandcontemplation,shefedhersoulwithheavenlyfood”(Marinella2008,p.204);“shegazedwitha sharpmentaleye,andcontemplatedonthespiltblood,thebitterwounds,andHispainfuldeath”(p.227);“Sheremained nightanddayincontinuousprayer,meditation,andfasting”(p.234). 21 ThismayalsohavebeenMarinella’sintentasthe1602editionofherLavitadiMariaVerginecontainsengravings. Religions2018,9,59 10of13 reproducetheimagethatMichelangelodrewforher,itispossibletosurmisethatColonna’sreflection onthedepthofMary’smeditationismorefocusedandprecisebecauseshehadanimageinfrontof hertoanalyzeandinterpret.22 The last author’s work we study in this three-week segment of the course, EleonoraMontalvo’sunpublished dramatic verse hagiography, Vita della Santissima Vergine Maria, which Montalvo wrote for and had performed by the women of the lay conservatories she founded in seventeenth-century Florence, draws on the power of theater to inspire and promote meditation.23 Writing in the middle of the seventeenth century, Montalvo would have been influenced, as was Marinella, by Baroque literary conventions and the early modern theological debate on Marian devotion. LikeMarinella’sbiographyofMary,Montalvo’spoetichagiographyemphasizesthewhat ofmeditation(visuallystrikingdetailsoftheNativityandPassion)and,similartoColonna’splaint, Montalvo’s composition also establishes the how of meditation (through Mary’s prayers and contemplationwhileChristisonthecrossandafterhisAscension). ButwhatsetsMontalvo’swork apartfromtheothertwonarrativesisthatMontalvoimplementsthemediumoftheaterasadistinctive waytoimproveone’spracticeofmeditation. IntheintroductiontotheninthsectionoftheVitadella SantissimaVergineMaria,onthePassionofChrist,Montalvo’sinstructionsstatethattheperformer whorepresentsMaryshouldchangefromher“QueenoftheAngelsdress”(“abitodiReginadegli Angeli”)toa“mourningdressandblackveil”(“abitolugubreenerovelo”)(Montalvon.d.,fol. 37)24 anddeclarethattheverypurposeoftheperformanceis,infact,tohelpaudiencemembersimprove theirpracticeofmeditation: Sontornatadinuovoaraccontarvi DelFigliolmiol’asperissimapassione Acciòchevoipossiateprepararvi Amegliofarnelameditazione(Montalvon.d.,fol. 38). [Ihavecomebackagaintotellyou AboutthemoststingingPassionofmyson Sothatyoucanprepareyourselves Toimproveyourmeditationofit.] Appearinginhernewcostume,whichreflectsthetransitioninearlymodernvisualculturefromthe regalMarytoamoreimitableMarywhodressesincontemporarymourningdress, theperformer preparesheraudienceforapowerfulimageoftheVirginMary’soutwardexpressionofherdeepinner sorrow. Inthisscene,theperformerrecitesgruesomedetailsandharshrhymesinordertobringto mindgraphicimagesofChrist’sblood-stainedandlaceratedbodyhangingfromthecrossandthrough whichheraudiencecouldexperiencesensoryimpressionswhenrecallingtheseimagesduringtheir meditationpractice. In creating poetic images to engage the physical senses and make the most impact on the meditation practices of the performer and the young women of the audience, Montalvo appears toimplementforthestagetheadvicethatCardinalGabrielePaleotti(1522–1597)givesinhisDiscorso intornoalleimaginisacreeprofanetopost-Tridentineartistsandwriters,whoshouldseekwithsimilar intenttocreatematerialthatshapesanaudience’sdesiretoobeyGod’swill: [I]fwordsthatareheardorreadaresoeffectiveatmovingoursenses,thenpicturesthat radiatepiety,modesty,holinessanddevotionmustpierceinsideuswithmuchmoreforce 22 StudyingTorquatoTasso’sLelacrimedellaBeataVergineinconjunctionwithColonna’splaintwouldprovideaninteresting parallelsinceitisbelievedthatTassowasalsoinspiredbyanimageoftheVirgin(nowlost)tocomposehis25-octavepoem (Mazzotta2012,pp.xiv–xv). 23 Montalvo’sdramatichagiographieswereperformedatLaQuieteandIlConventino,twolayconservatoriesforwomenthat Montalvofoundedinseventeenth-centuryFlorence.FormoreonMontalvo’slayconservatoriesandplays,seemyarticle,“Teaching IgnatianSpiritualitytoRichandPoorGirlsthroughDramaticPerformanceinSeventeenth-CenturyFlorence”(Haraguchi2016). 24 TranslationsofMontalvo’sVitadellaSantissimaVergineMariaaremine.

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such apocryphal texts as the Protevangelium of James, the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, and the Legenda. Aurea of Jacopus de Varagine, Virginia Cox 2011, (n. 5, p. visit Elizabeth, takes 'two elderly women,' Anna's old servants, with her, presumably inherited on her mother's death, and possibly a
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religions Article The Virgin Mary in the Early Modern Italian Writings of Vittoria Colonna, Lucrezia Marinella, and Eleonora Montalvo JenniferHaraguchi DepartmentofFrenchandItalian,BrighamYoungUniversity,3134JFSB,Provo,UT84602,USA; [email protected] Received:25October2017;Accepted:5February2018;Published:13February2018 Abstract: The Marian writings of the Roman poet Vittoria Colonna (1490/92-1547), the Venetian polemicist Lucrezia Marinella (1579–1653)1, and the Florentine educator Eleonora Montalvo (1602–1659)presentanaccessiblemodeloftheVirginMaryintheearlymodernperiodthatbothlay andreligiouswomencouldemulateinordertostrengthentheirindividualspirituality. Whilethe CatholicChurchencouragedwomentoacceptandimitateanidealoftheVirginMary’scharacter traitsandbehaviorforthegoodofsociety,thesethreewomenwritersconstructedamorefruitful narrativeoftheVirgin’slifeandexperiencethatincludedelementsandimagerythatwouldempower womentoenhancetheirpersonalpracticeofmeditation. Keywords: Italian women writers; Vittoria Colonna; Lucrezia Marinella; Eleonora Montalvo; Virgin Mary; Early Modern Italy; Counter-Reformation; conduct literature; Catholic Meditation; IgnatianSpirituality In sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Christian Europe, ecclesiastical leaders disagreed on the power of the Virgin Mary to effectuate salvation: Catholics promoted Mary’s intercessory role, whereas Protestants considered it heresy to pray to the Virgin, choosing instead to focus on Mary’s position as a recipient of God’s grace, a mortal woman full of faith and worthy of emulation (Bruni and Wirz 2012; Gambero 2012). While Catholic clerics reinforced the medieval perception of Mary as the Virgin Mother and Queen of Heaven, they also encouraged women to adoptMary’svirtuousattributesforthegoodofsociety. Cullingtheirideasfromthescripturesand suchapocryphaltextsastheProtevangeliumofJames,theGospelofPseudo-Matthew,andtheLegenda AureaofJacopusdeVaragine,Catholicpreachersandwritersofnumerousworksonthelifeofthe VirginemphasizedMary’sobedience,modesty,andsubmissivenessascharacteristicsofgoodfemale behavioranddecorum. Similarly,earlymodernwomenblurredthelinesbetweenpietyandmanners whenwritingabouttheVirginMary,buttheyalsoidentifiedwaysinwhichMaryandthesaintswere powerfulexamples,onahumanlevel,offemalespirituality. Inanadvanced-levelundergraduateseniorseminaronEarlyModernItalianWomenWriters, my goal as a teacher is to outline the expectations that men placed on women while encouraging studentstoidentifyandappreciatetheuniquewaysinwhichwomenwriters—andnotjustnunswho wroteonspiritualmatters,butlaywomenaswell—soughttocreatetheirowntemplateoftheideal spiritualwoman. Amongtheworksstudiedinthisseminar,weanalyzethreeMariancompositions writtenbylaywomen: PiantodellaMarchesadiPescarasopralapassionediChristobytheRomanpoet Vittoria Colonna (1490/92–1547), La vita di Maria Vergine Imperatrice dell’Universo by the Venetian polemicistLucreziaMarinella(1579–1653),andVitadellaSantissimaVergineMariabytheFlorentine 1 VirginiaCox2011,(n.5,p.271)proposesamendingMarinella’sbirthdatefrom1571to1579. Religions2018,9,59;doi:10.3390/rel9020059 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions2018,9,59 2of13 educator Eleonora Montalvo (1602–1659).2 These compositions, written in three different genres (plaint,3biography,anddramaticperformance),attesttotheingenuityoflaywriters. Notwithstanding theconstraintsplacedontheirgender,thesewomenwritersdesignedamoreintricateandempowering representationoftheVirginMarythanthetraditionalmodel,whichfocusedsolelyonMarianattributes thatwomencouldemulateinordertomakethemselvesusefulandpleasingtoamale-dominated society. Colonna’s,Marinella’s,andMontalvo’swritingsontheVirginMaryemphasizeindividual meditation,oneofthefewspheresinwhichearlymodernwomenwerefreetoshapetheirownnotion ofwhatconstitutespersonaldevotion. I teach these Marian writings in a three-week segment of a fourteen-week senior seminar for majors and minors of Italian at Brigham Young University (BYU).4 I begin this part of the course by having my students read Susan Haskins’s succinct history of the Virgin Mary in the “Volume Editor’s Introduction” (Haskins 2008, pp. 4–41) of her translated edition of the works of Vittoria Colonna,ChiaraMatraini,andLucreziaMarinella,fortheseriesTheOtherVoiceinEarlyModern Europe,entitledWhoisMary? ThreeEarlyModernWomenontheIdeaoftheVirginMary. Haskins’sbrief history provides an excellent overview of the theology and cultural interpretation of Mary in the scriptures,theEasternChurch,theWesternChurch,theApocrypha,theMiddleAges,andtheCounter Reformation. Inordertostructureourdiscussionsontheinterconnectednessofwrittenandvisual culturesandtohelpstudentsunderstandthepowerofMary’simageinearlymodernvisualculture, I require one student to give a 3–5 min presentation at the beginning of each class period of the three-week duration on an assigned section of Haskins’s history of Mary as it relates to two or threeimagesoftheVirginfromtheearlymodernperiodthattheyhave“pinned”onourclass’sPinterest board.5 For their presentations, I ask students to interpret the images they have selected as they correspond to the various phases of the history of Mary and to consider how art may have been implementedtoreinforcedogma,particularlyduringtheCounterReformationwhentheCouncilof Trenturgedartiststoillustrate,andtherebyadvocate,thedoctrinesoftheImmaculateConception, theconceptionandbirthofChrist,Mary’sperpetualvirginity,andtheAssumptionandCoronationof Mary. SomeoftheimagesIfindparticularlyeffectiveindemonstratingMary’srolethroughhistory are the late thirteenth-century mosaic in the conch of the central apse of Santa Maria Maggiore in RomerepresentingMaryenthronedastheQueenofHeavenasshesitsbesideChrist(toreinforcethe medievalconceptionofMaryasReginacoeli),Correggio’ssixteenth-centuryfrescooftheAssumption oftheVirgininthedomeoftheCathedralofParma(toillustratethedoctrinesoftheAssumption, Incarnation,Intercession,andTransubstantiation),andthesixteenth-centuryMadonnadelPopoloby FedericoBarocci,depictingtheVirginintercedingwithChristinheavenforthecommonpeopleon earth. Barocci’spaintingtellinglyportraysproperfemalesocietalduties,asthemotherinthelower lefthandcornerattemptstoinspireMariandevotioninherchildren. Iconsiderthesepresentations 2 IhavemystudentsreadVittoriaColonna’sandLucreziaMarinella’scompositionsintranslation(Colonna2008;Marinella2008). ForEleonoraMontalvo’sdramaticversehagiographywereadmyItaliantranscription(Iampreparingacriticaleditionand translationofMontalvo’sunpublishedworksfortheseriesTheOtherVoiceinEarlyModernEurope). 3 WhileColonna’stextwaspublishedwiththetitleof“plaint”(aliterarycompositionofcomplaintorlamentation),itwas originallyconceivedasalettertoBernardinoOchinoandconsideredameditationonChrist’sPassioninthemanuscript tradition(Haskins2008,p.49).EleonoraCarinci(2016,pp.404–5)indicatesthatthetitlePiantomayhavebeenaddedlater topublishededitionsofthetext. 4 In this course on early modern Italian women writers, we study selected works of varying genres (letter, treatise, dialogue, biography, plaint, drama): Alessandra Macinghi Strozzi’s Lettere (Macinghi Strozzi 1997, 2016); ArcangelaTarabotti’sInfernomonacale(Tarabotti1990)orherTiranniapaterna(Tarabotti2004);ModerataFonte’sIlmerito delledonne(Fonte1997);VittoriaColonna’sPiantodellaMarchesadiPescarasopralapassionediChristo(Colonna2008);Lucrezia Marinella’sLavitadiMariaVergineImperatricedell’Universo(Marinella2008);EleonoraMontalvo’sVitadellaSantissimaVergine Maria,andAntoniaPulci’sLarappresentazionediSantaDomitillaandLarappresentazionediSantaGuglielma(Pulci2010). ThroughoutthesemesterIalsohavemystudentsreadselectionsfromthesourcebook,WomeninItaly,1350-1650:Idealsand Realities(RogersandTinagliand2005),regardingissuespertainingtowomen(i.e.,lifecycles,roles,discourseofbeautyand love,etc.). 5 Seehttps://www.pinterest.com/jharaguchi7475/vergine-maria-ital-495r/. Religions2018,9,59 3of13 essentialforsettingthestageatthebeginningofeachclassperiodforclosereadingsofthetextsand ourdiscussionson(a)howtheCatholicChurchcreatedandfosteredaMarianidealasameansto improvesocietyand(b)howthevisualartsmayhaveinfluencedColonna,Marinella,andMontalvoto writeinwaysthatwouldhelpwomenstrengthentheirprivatemeditativepractices. 1. TheMaleIdeal: TheWell-BehavedMary OneofthefirstpointsImakewithmystudentsaboutthemodelofa“well-behavedMary”is thatartwasapowerfulforceinshapingit. Followingeachstudent’spresentation,wereviewasa classsomeoftheimagesonourPinterestboardandconsidertheCouncilofTrent’schargetopromote artisticdepictionsforpedagogicalpurposes: ... letthebishopsdiligently teachthatbymeansofthe storiesofthemysteriesofour redemptionportrayedinpaintingsandotherrepresentationsthepeopleareinstructedand confirmedinthearticlesoffaith,whichoughttobeborneinmindandconstantlyreflected upon... sothatthey... fashiontheirownlifeandconductinimitationofthesaintsand bemovedtoadoreandloveGodandcultivatepiety(Schroeder1941,pp. 215–16). ByanalyzingartisticdepictionsofMary,mystudentscometoseeadevelopmentinthetransition fromtheregalMaryoftheMiddleAgestothemorerelatableimageofMaryfromthefifteenththrough theseventeenthcenturies. AsAnnabelThomashaspositedinherstudyofthelifeoftheVirginin conventualart,artisticdepictionsofMarycomprisetwocategories: (1)theVirginportrayedinallher majesticandcelestialglory;and(2)theVirginpresentedasobedientandhumblethroughtheinclusion ofmorepersonal,intimatedetails(Thomas2003,p. 120). Throughabriefanalysisoftheworksofart thatwehaveplacedonPinterest,mystudentsseehowearlymodernimagesoftheVirginfocused lessontheparadoxicalandunattainableidealofMaryasbothvirginandmotherandmoreonan accessibleandfamiliarmotherMarywhoseobedience,modesty,andsubmissivenesscouldbeimitated forthegoodofsociety. Ialsopointouttomystudentsthatpublicsermonsplayedanimportantpartinconstructing the“well-behavedMary”ideal. OneofthemostfamousexamplescitedbyhistoriansconsidersSan Bernardino’spreachinginfifteenth-centurySienawhenhecommentsspecificallyonMary’sbehavioral traits. Heencourageswomenandgirlstostayathome,astheVirgindid,andneveratthewindow, butshutawayintheirroomsinsteadreadingpiousmaterial: Oyougirls,learnhowyoushouldstayathome,andbewareofwhoeverentersthehouse, asyouseethattheVirginMarystayedshutaway,andalwayswishedtoseewhowanted tocomeinandwhy... ButwemustsaywheretheAngelfoundher. Wheredoyouthink shewas? Atthewindow,orinvolvedinsomeothervanity? Ohno! Shestayedshutaway inherchamber,andwasreading,tosetanexampletoyou,mygirl,nottoenjoystanding orleaningoutofthewindow,buttostayathome,sayingtheAveMariaorPaternosteror, ifyoucanread,readinggood,piousmaterial(RogersandTinagliand2005,p. 45). SanBernardinoalsodrawsonthefourteenth-centuryartistSimoneMartini’sdepictionofthe Annunciation in the cathedral (now in the Uffizi) to encourage his female congregants to keep Mary’s“fearfulpose”(infrontoftheAngelGabriel)inmindwhenspeakingwithmen: HaveyouseenthatAnnunciationsceneinthecathedral,atthealtarofStSano,besidethe Sacristy? Thatcertainlyseemstometohavethefinest,themostreverentandmodestpose I’veeverseeninanAnnunciation. Look: she’snotlookingattheAngel,butisinanalmost fearfulpose. Sheknewquitewellitwasanangel,sowhyshouldshebealarmed? What wouldshehavedoneifithadbeenaman? Followthisexample,girls,ofwhatyoushould do. Neverspeaktoamanunlessyourfatherormotherispresent(ibid.). Asaclassweevaluatethispainting,discussinghowSanBernardino’scommentechoestheadvice ofcontemporaryconductmanualsinstructingwomentobetimidandhumbleinthepresenceofmen. Religions2018,9,59 4of13 TheconnectionIendeavortomakebetweenart,sermons,andconductliteratureleadstoanother essentialclassdiscussiononthepoweroftheprintedwordinshapingsocietalexpectationsofthe “well-behavedMary.”Therecentstudy,ConductLiteratureforandaboutWomeninItaly,indicatesthat 31.3%ofthe208titlesoftractsonvariousargumentspublishedbyGiolito’spressbetween1536and 1606wereconductmanuals(SansonandLucioli2016,p. 16). Oneofthecoreelementsoftheearly modernperiodwaseducation,andclericsandwriterstookadvantageoftheprintingpresstodiffuse educationalprinciplesthatwouldreformthechurchandtheworld. Evokingthecivilizingprecepts of the humanist educational treatises of the previous century (i.e.,FrancescoBarbaro’sDereuxoria [1416],MatteoPalmieri’sDellavitacivile[1431–1438],andLeonBattistaAlberti’sIlibridellafamiglia [1433–1434]),Counter-Reformationwritersreinforcedthebehavioraltraitsandeducationalprinciples foundintheseseculartextsforareligiouspurpose,conflatingmannersandpietyintheirownwritings.6 AsIleadmystudentsinourdiscussionofconductliterature,providingexcerptsfromsomeofthe manuals,IalsomakethemawareoftheproliferationofMariantextsinthelatesixteenthandearly seventeenth centuries, many on the life of the Virgin Mary, written by priests of various religious orders,whichreinforcemoralanddidacticprinciplesfoundinconductmanuals(Carinci2013,p. 362). The authors of these spiritual texts make it clear that proper female devotion depends on proper behavior: they advise mothers, wives, and nuns to emulate Mary’s humility, meekness, silence, passivity,obedience,timidity,andmodestandprudentspeech. Theauthorsalsopersuadewomento readthepsalmsanddoneedlework,practicesthat,accordingtotheapocryphaltexts,helpedMary avoididleness. Byconsideringtheunderlyingculturalforcesatworkinthemakingofthe“well-behavedMary,” mystudentsareinabetterpositiontoanalyzehowandwhyMarinellachosetoreinforcethisidealin LavitadiMariaVergineImperatricedell’Universo,publishedinVenicein1602(withasubsequentedition in1604,areprintofthiseditionin1610,andanothereditionin1617).7 Marinellawouldhavebeen familiarwithconductliteratureandsermonsthaturgedawomantokeepherhonorandvirtuesafeby notgoingoutaloneinpublic,andItellmystudentsthatitishighlyprobablethatMarinellawouldhave alsoseenartisticdepictions,suchastheGiottofrescoesintheCappelladegliScrovegniinPadova,8 whichportrayMaryandhercousinElizabethinthecompanyofothers. InLavitadiMariaVergine, Marinellafollowsthisdirective,borrowingdirectlyfromPietroAretino’sVitadiMariaVergine(1539),9 byhavingAnna, themotherofMary, gowithcompanionswhenshetravelstomeetherhusband; Mary,too,makesthejourneytovisitElizabethinthecompanyofotherwomen.10 Similarly,Marinella reiteratestheprescriptiveadvicegiventowomeninconductliteratureontheimportanceofprayer andself-mortificationwhenshestatesthat“despiteheryouth,[Mary]fastedoften,andwasalways praying”(Marinella2008,p. 146)and“[s]heatesparingly,andonlyasmuchfoodaswashumanly necessary”(p. 149).11 Marinellaalsoreinforcesthemaleidealbyaccentuatingthenegativeaspects ofundesirablecharactertraitsinwomen: “Swollenpride,punishabletalkativeness,impetuousrage, andtenacityofgreedwereallfarremovedfrom[Mary]”(ibid.). Inaddition,Mary’sdress,asindicated bymaleinstruction,wasmodest,simple,andpure: “Sheshone,notamongthepurplesandgolds 6 OttaviaNiccoli(1994)arguesthatCounter-Reformationtreatises,suchasSilvioAntoniano’sTrelibridell’educazionecristiana (1584),madeuniqueeffortstolinkrulesofcomportmentandpietywiththeaimofreformingtheChurchandsociety. 7 (Haskins2008,p.120).ThefirsteditionincludesanepicpoeminottavarimathatMarinellawroteonthesamesubject.Inthis coursewereadonlytheproseversion. 8 See(Jacobus1998)foraconvincingdiscussionontherelationshipbetweendevotionaltexts,conductliterature,andartin thischapel. 9 See(Carinci2013)forfurtherevidenceofMarinella’semulationofAretino’stext.Seealso(Aretino2011). 10 SusanHaskins(2008, p. 125)statesthat“AnnagoestomeetJoachim‘togetherwithsomerespectedwomen,’ asno ‘respectable’ woman would be allowed out without a female companion (p. 140);” and “similarly, Mary, going to visitElizabeth,takes‘twoelderlywomen,’Anna’soldservants,withher,presumablyinheritedonhermother’sdeath, andpossiblyamarkoffamilycontinuity(p.168).” 11 Atthispointwehaveabriefdiscussionontheimportanceofself-mortificationintheearlymodernperiod.Forfurther informationsee(Bell1985;Bynum1987). Religions2018,9,59 5of13 beneathwhichtheswollenvanitiesofwomenareconcealed,butamongthewhitenessandsimplicity ofapure,plainsinglerobe... inthepurityofsuchagarment,sheappearedalmostanangel,shining inthewhitenessofhisheavenlytunic”(p. 152). Finally,MarinelladepictsanindustriousMarywho notonlyshunsidlenesswhileresidinginEgyptbutwhoisascommittedasJosephtoprovidefortheir refugeefamily: With the integrity of his craft, Joseph obtained a little of the food our nature needs for itspreservation. Ashewasaforeignerheearnedlittle. However,ingreatpovertythey survived. TheVirgin,too,whomHeavenelectedasitsqueen,wasinthestraitsofnecessity, butbypracticingthevirtuesofembroideryandlace-making,whichsheknewhowtodo verywell,shemadetheirgreatpovertyalittlelessburdensome(p. 194). Here,MarinellapresentsMaryassheisoftendepictedinearlymodernpaintings,engagingin sophisticatedneedleworkthatwastypicaloftheupperclasses,incontrasttothefourteenth-century pseudo-BonaventuranrepresentationoftheVirginMarywhoperformsbasicandessentialsewingand spinningtohelpprovideforherfamily’sneedsinEgypt(RagusaandGreen1961,pp. 69,75). AswereadtheseexcerptsfromMarinella’sLavitadiMariaVergine,mystudentsandIconsider thefollowingquestions: WhydoesMarinella’stextreinforceandpromoteexamplesofthemaleideal regardingfemalebehavior? DoesMarinellaendorsethisidealandcreateasimilarprescriptivetextof herownforwomen? OrdoesMarinellaproposeanythingdistinctiveoutsideofthemale-designed blueprintforwomen? MystudentsoftenrespondthatMarinellaprobablyfeltconstrainedtocraft an ideal of the Virgin that was consonant with societal expectations and acceptable to her male peers. IagreethatMarinellamayhavefashionedherparticularversionoftheVirginaccordingto the“well-behaved”Marianidealespousedbymeninordertogainapprovalfromamaleaudience. However,itisimportantthatweestablishthatMarinellaalsotransformsMaryintoanactivespiritual rolemodelforwomen—onewho,forexample,wasalways“discussingholymatters”atayoungage (Marinella2008,p. 146),whichwasnotanobviousfemaletrait. Marinella,likeColonnaandMontalvo, profilesMary’sknowledge,understanding,andskillfulpracticeoffemalespiritualityandindicates thatMaryconstitutesanattainableexemplarforwomenasonewhodemonstrateshowandonwhat tomeditateinordertogetclosertoGod. 2. TheFemaleIdeal: TheMeditativeMary AswebegintoanalyzetheuniqueaspectsofMarinella’s, Colonna’s, andMontalvo’sMarian writingsthatemphasizeandpromotemeditationthroughanexampleofapensiveanddidacticMary, I find it necessary to help students understand that certain ideas, favorable to women, circulated duringthesixteenthcentury,notwithstandingaseeminglyall-encompassingoppressiveclimate.12 Thefollowingexampleillustrateshowwomenbenefitedfromamodificationtoreligiousthought. Influencedbyevangelicalideas,Catholicclergyadviseddevoteestoveerawayfromthemedieval imitatioChristi,whichtheyrealizedwasanimpossiblepatterntofollow,andtowardstheimitationof Mary,amortalbeing,andherapproachablefaithandmeditationpractices,amoreaccessibleparadigm onthepathwaytoChrist(Brundin2008,p. 142). Women(bothlayandreligious)embracedthistype ofreligiositysinceitinvolvedamorerealistic,relatablerolemodelforthemtoemulate. Inasermon deliveredinVenicein1539,theCapuchinpreacherBernardinoOchinoencouragedcongregantsto imitateMary’sexampleoffaithandcontemplation: 12 Contemporaryscholarship,followinginthefootstepsofVirginiaCox’sgroundbreakingstudiesonwomen’swritingin Counter-ReformationItaly,whichciteoversixtypublishedworksbywomenbetween1580and1630,ismoreinclinedto examineculturalelementsofthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesthatfostered,ratherthansuppressed,femalecreativity (Cox2008,2011). Religions2018,9,59 6of13 TheVirginMary,theholyvirgin,wastheonewhomostperfectlyandbetterthananyother creature contemplated Christ hung upon the cross with a living faith in the manner in whichwetooshouldcontemplatehim(Ochino1541,fol. 27v.).13 Ochino’s sermons and emphasis on the imitation of Mary—as opposed to imitatio Christi—appealed to Colonna and other women who were seeking a role model who was more definitiveandpertinenttothemaswomen.Ochino’sstatementfocusesontheimportanceofemulating Mary, especially in the way she contemplated Christ. Similarly, the Marian writings of Colonna, Marinella,andMontalvounderscorehowwellMaryperformsmeditationandcontemplationand proposethesepracticesasspecificwaysinwhichwomenmayimitateMary. Drawinginspirationfrom thevisualartsandcontemporarytextsonmeditation,thesethreewritersillustratehowMaryprovides apowerfulrolemodelforwomenwhoseektoimprovetheirindividualandpersonaldevotiontoGod. Inordertobeabletoidentifyandanalyzetextualelementsthatfostermeditationinthewritings of these three laywomen, students should understand the importance of meditation and how it was practiced in the early modern tradition of affective piety.14 I explain that this tradition was widelyavailablethroughthreeprimaryavenues: meditativeliterature(specifically, theinfluential fourteenth-centurypseudo-BonaventuranMeditationesvitaeChristi,usuallyattributedtotheFranciscan Johannes de Caulibus, and the popular genre of Rosary meditations, which included images to facilitate meditation); the devotio moderna movement that originated in the Netherlandsin the late fourteenth century, which encouraged followers to participate in the Passion of Christ through vicariousexperience; andtheJesuitteachingofIgnatiusofLoyola’sExercitiaSpiritualia,published in1548,afour-weekprogramofmeditationsonthesinfullifeofmanandthelifeofChrist. Ishare passagesfromthepseudo-BonaventuranMeditationes,aguidebookonmeditationandcontemplation (thetermsareusedinterchangeablyinthistext)whenexplainingthatthepowerofmentalimages leadsonetoahigherlevelofdevotion(RagusaandGreen1961). IalsopresentexcerptsofIgnatius’s ExercitiaSpiritualiatoillustratethestepsthefaithfulmusttakeinthemeditativeprocessthatwilllead themtospiritualself-reformation: thefirstphaseconsistsof“seeinginimaginationthephysicalplace wherethatwhich[they]wanttocontemplateistakingplace”;next,theyshouldactivatetheirsensesin bridgingthegapbetweenChrist’seraandtheirown,consideringandanalyzingwhatthey“see”and “hear,”asiftheywereactuallypresent;finally,theyshouldsimulatea“colloquy”withChristonthe crossorwithMaryorthesaintsinordertoseekcounselandfavorsfromthem(Ganss1991). Oncemy studentsgainabetterunderstandingoftheearlymodernconceptofmeditation,theyrecognizemore easilythemeditativeaspectsofthewritingsofMarinella,Colonna,andMontalvo. Although it makes sense from a chronological perspective to have my students study Colonna’stextfirst,IprefertocontinueouranalysisofMarinella’swork(asoutlinedinthefirstsection ofthisessay)bytransitioningfromourdiscussionofMarinella’sdedicationtothemale-inspiredmodel of female comportment to consider the writer’s promotion of canonical meditation practices that encompassamoreindependentexpressionoffemalespirituality. ReadingMarinella’sLavitadiMaria Vergine,mystudentsaresurprisedbythe“extra”episodesanddetailsofMary’slifethatdonotappear intheNewTestamentaccounts,andthisopensupaconversationaboutMarinella’sapocryphalsources andthemeditativeanddevotionaltextsthatshemayhavedrawnfrominordertoenhanceparticular aspectsofMary’sbiography. AsEleonoraCarinci(2013,2016)hasdemonstrated,however,themost directsourceforMarinella’sLavitadiMariaVergineisPietroAretino’sVitadiMariaVergineandhisI quattrolibridelahumanitàdiChristo(1535),andIproposethatMarinellareiteratedexplicitandelaborate passagesfromAretino’stextsinordertoreinforcethedirectivesofIgnatius’sExercitiaSpiritualiaandthe 13 FormoreinformationonBernardinoOchino,see(Bainton1941). 14 For the information I share with my students, I have consulted (Egger 1974–2003; Gründler 1987; McNamer 2010; Freedberg1989;Smith2002). Religions2018,9,59 7of13 pseudo-BonaventuranMeditationes.15 Furthermore,hertrainingintheBaroqueliterarytraditionoflofty rhetoric,influencedbyAretino’stexts,repletewithexamplesofhyperboleandrepetition,produced an imaginative narrative that may have served as an aid to meditation.16 According to Ignatius, Christ’sNativityandPassionarethemostimportantdevotionalsubjectsonwhichtomeditateand MarinellarendersthesescenesinanexceptionallyvisualwaytosupportIgnatius’srecommendationto imaginedetailsthatmakethejourneytoBethlehemandthesceneoftheNativityvividintheirminds (Ganss1991,pp.149–50).Marinella’sdescriptionofthe“poorhovel,orlittlehut,theshelterforanimals belongingtosomeshepherds”(Marinella2008,p. 173),borrowedfromPietroAretino’sIquattrolibride lahumanitàdiChristo(pp. 11r-v),employstheevocativedetailofanearlymodernpainting: Itwastheplace,asitiswritten,beneaththelowlinessofwhichtheyretired,theruinofa building,theancientnessofwhichhadbeenthrowntothegroundbyJoseph’sweakarm, assomepiecesofbrokencolumnsandsomewallsborewitness. Ivyandthorns,intheir arrogance, had taken over others’ rights. Part of the building was still upright, thanks totheshepherds’care,andwascoveredbyreedssetuprusticallywithleavesandroots. Thesewereheldupabovesomebeams,weakenedthroughrainandage. Thedoor,which hadfallenbytheentrance,wasofentwinedwillow-treetwigs(ibid.). IndepictingChrist’sPassion,MarinellareinforcesIgnatius’schargetoactivatethesensesduring meditationwhenshepresentsagraphicdescriptionofChrist’scrucifixionthatmayproducefeelings ofsorrowandcompassioninreadersastheyimaginewhatMaryvisualizes: ThusthedisconsolateMother,whowithJohn,theMagdalen,Martha,andtheotherMarys, wasbathedinthebloodthatdrippedfromherbelovedSon’sbody,lookedonebyoneat theblows,wounds,andstabsthatcruelty’shandshadmadeinthehead,hands,andfeetof herdeadhope,andfelteveryinjury,everywound,andeverystabwoundpierceherbreast withthebitternessofsorrow,asifshehadbeenwoundedbythepiercingandcrueltyofa hundredswords(p. 218) InadditiontoportrayingthescenesofChrist’slife,Marinellaexpandstherepertoireofimagesto includeMary’svisionofthemartyrdomofthesaints,whichconformswithIgnatius’ssuggestionto meditateonanysubjectthatbringsoneclosertoChrist(Ganss1991,p. 121). Marinellarendersthese scenesinanexpressiveway,againbyaccentuatingtheBaroqueaesthetic,andthistimebydescribing explicittormentsasifunfoldingonanelaboratestage: ItseemedtothegloriousVirgin,Ithink,thatshesaw(stillboundinalightsleep),among many other things, a spacious place, like a great theater, in which there were figures in various shapes all cut by swords, with what appeared to her to be the cruelty of tyrants venting their bestial natures on the flesh and bones of those who followed in Christ’s divine footsteps. It seemed to her that these filled the fearful theater ... [and] shesawcountlessvirginswho,atthemostbeautifulandlovelyageandintheirbeauty, offeredtheirchastelimbsanddelicatebutstrongbreaststoswords,arrows,razors,flames, scourges,andpoisonousserpents,tothesavagetalonsofwildlions,tothedarknessof 15 AccordingtoPaoloMarini(MariniandAretino2011,p.65),thetendencyofPietroAretino(1540,2011)tovividdescription inhisreligiousworksisheavilyinfluencedbythetraditionofMeditationesvitaeChristi.Itwouldbeaninterestingresearch projectforoneofmystudentstoanalyzespecificinstancesinwhichMarinellausesandmodifiesAretino’sworksto inspiremeditation. 16 IntheintroductiontoLavitadiMariaVergineImperatricedell’Universo,Marinellaprovidesanexplanationofherpoetic methodology,statingthatshefollowstheGreekepictraditioninemployingagrandandeloquentstyleofwritingto matchthemagnificenceofthesubject.TheintroductionisnotincludedinSusanHaskins’sedition,butHaskinsprovides a summary of it for her readers (Marinella 2008, pp. 122–23). Here, as Eleonora Carinci asserts, Marinella imitates PietroAretino’sdeclarationthathewrotehisVitadiMariaVergineinanelaboratemannerinordertoreflectthenobility ofthesubject.CarinciarguesthatMarinella’sbiographyoftheVirgindrawsdecisivelyonAretino’sVitadiMariaVergine, whichwasplacedontheIndexofProhibitedBooksin1557(Carinci2013). Religions2018,9,59 8of13 prisons,tohooksandcords,tothetenacityofhardchains,andwhohadsuchopenfaces in the presence of torments that it appeared to her that they desired more than feared suchmartyrdoms(Marinella2008,pp. 228-29). Inanotherinstance,Marinellaemploystheexpression“blood-filledtheater”(p. 230),whichgives startlingdistinctiontoSaintFrancis’splaceofmartyrdomandcomplementsthephrases“greattheater” and “fearful theater” in the citation above; these expressions, which evoke scenes of sensational representations, serve to further designate and classify places of extreme persecution and torture. ConcludingourdiscussionofMarinella’sbiographyofMary, Iaimtoconveytomystudentsthat Marinella’sreligioustextappropriatesthehighlydramaticandextravagantstyleofthesecularwriters ofherdayinordertodepictmemorablescenesthatproduceemotionalresponsesforthereaderand remaininthemindlongafterthereadingisover.17 AswemovebackwardsintimefromMarinella’sbiographytoColonna’sPiantodellaMarchesadi Pescara sopra la passione di Cristo, first published in Venice in 1556,18 I point out that both authors represent the practice of meditation in different ways, perhaps reflecting their contrasting eras. WhereMarinella’sCounter-Reformationtextisalmostentirelydescriptive,underscoringwhatone shouldmeditateon,Colonna’sisamoreintellectualnarrative,producedinanevangelicalera,revealing Mary’sactualthoughtsandfeelingsanddemonstratinghowMarymeditatesasshegazesatthedead Christlyinginherlap. Igivemystudentsanexampletoillustratethisdivergence. Turningbackto Marinella’stext,asnarrator,MarinellamerelywonderswhatMaryisfeelingasshecontemplatesher sononthecross: What torment was yours, O Queen of the most beautiful souls that are worthy of God’s presence? While you were by the lofty wood of the tragic Cross, perhaps you were thinking that the birds took sweet rest in their nests, the wolves and the bears in theircavesanddens,andthatyourblessedJesushadnowheretorestHiswoundedand droopingbody... (Marinella2008,p. 218) MarinellaoffersarhetoricalquestionandspeculatesthatMarysimplyrepeatsinhermindthe wordsJesusspokeduringhisministry(asrecordedinMatthew8:20andLuke9:58)toillustratethe costofdiscipleship. Colonna,ontheotherhand,inherPiantodepictsMary’sindividualconsideration ofpsychologicalandemotionalissuesinawaythatmayhaveinspiredreaderstoexpressthemselves freelyintheirownmeditativepractices. ColonnawritesthatMarywas“thinkingoverwhat[Christ] hadfeltinthathour”(Colonna2008,p. 56),andthat“inhermindsheenclosedherselfwithinthe sacredside,whencesheknewthatthesacramentsofoursomanygraceshadflowed”and“wanted everyoneintheentireworldtobeabletoseewhatshesaw,sothattheymightenjoysuchimmense grace”(p. 57);ColonnaatteststotheappropriatenessofgratitudeinmeditationasMary“thanked theheavenlyFather... shethankedtheHolySpirit... shethankedtheangels... shethankedthe sun”(p. 63).19 ColonnaismoreinsistentthanMarinellaonrevealingtheinnerthoughtsandfeelings ofMaryasshepracticesmeditation. 17 WhileMarinellafaithfullyreproducesanestablishedmodelofmeditation,acceptabletoherCounter-Reformationaudience, EleonoraCarincidemonstratesMarinella’sdeviationfromthetraditionalperspectiveofwomenbyidentifyingdetailsthat depictanactiveanddidacticMary,whichperhapswouldhaveempoweredwomenintheirpersonalstudyanddevotion. AccordingtoCarinci,Marinella’sMarymimicsAretino’sMarywhodisplaysexcellenceinmeditationandwhoalsostudies, speakswisely,andeventravels,teaches,andpreachesafterChrist’sResurrection(Carinci2013,pp.373,378). 18 Thiseditionwasthefirstoffivesixteenth-centuryeditions;itwaspublishedtogetherwiththeOrazionesopral’AveMaria, anotherprosemeditationwrittenbyColonna,aswellasananonymousorationmadeonGoodFriday,onthePassionof Christ(Haskins2008,p.49).Carinci(2016,pp.400–1)arguesthatColonnawrotethePiantoin1540–1541.Themanuscript heldintheVaticanSecretArchivesthePiantoisentitledMeditazionedelVenerdìSantoandhasanalternatetitle—Sermone sopralaVergineaddolorata—intheindexofthesearchives. 19 Someastutestudentshavepointedtothe“LamentofChrist’sMother”(Marinella2008,p. 216)inMarinella’sLavitadi MariaVergine,asanexampleofMarinella’spresentationofamoreintrospectiveMary.However,indiscussingthemedieval traditionoftheplanctusMariae,wecometotheconclusionthatthis“lament”merelyfollowsthetraditionanddoesnotoffer theuniquemeditativestancethatColonnaadoptsthroughoutherPianto. Religions2018,9,59 9of13 To illustrate further the differences between Marinella and Colonna in their depictions of the meditativeMary,IpointmystudentstopassageswhereMarinellamakesonlyfleetingreferencesto Mary’smeditationsandcontemplations,20whereasColonnanarratesmoreexplicitlyhowMarygazed onthephysicalformofChrist’s“divineface”afterhisdeathinordertocontemplatethevirtuesshe saw“depicted”inhisfacialfeaturesandspeech: Thenshemeditatedupon, evensawdepictedinthedivineface, thevestigesofcharity, obedience,humility,patience,andpeaceinthedivineface,sawfirstcharityinitstrueseat, whenHesaid: “Forgivethem,fortheyknownotwhattheydo”;patienceinsaying,“My God,myGod,whyhastthouforsakenme?”(pp. 55-56) Mary’smeditationinColonna’sPiantoderivesitsmetaphysicalaspectsfromChrist’sphysical features and from what she remembers he has said. Furthermore, Colonna’s Pianto links Mary’s empathy with her excellence in meditation: “All this shone forth in Christ’s face more to the Madonna than to others, as she suffered more passionately” (p. 56). According to Colonna, Mary“saw”morethantheothers,inametaphysicalsense,becauseshewasconcentratinginavery pointedwayinhermeditationinordertoparticipatevicariouslyinChrist’ssuffering. Isuggestthat Colonna’sMarymayhaveinspiredherfemaleaudiencetoinnovateinapersonalizedwaybecause sheexemplifieswhatDavidFreedbergdefinesasnot“somegeneralizedchannelingofthemindtothe image,butratheranattentivenessparticularizedintermsoftheintimateexperienceofthebeholder” (Freedberg1989,pp. 166-67). AtthispointIprojectanimageonthescreenofMichelangelo’sdrawing forColonna—PietàforVittoriaColonnaattheIsabellaStewartGardnerMuseuminBoston—andwe considerhowColonna’sPiantomaybeamorecomplexpsychologicalrepresentationofmeditationthan Marinella’sLaVitadiMariaVerginebecauseColonnamayhavebeenlookingatMichelangelo’sdrawing while composing it (Nagel 1997; Forcellino 2016, p. 302). We then discuss the notion in early moderncultureofthepowerofimagestofacilitatemeditation(inthiscase,Colonna’smeditationon Mary’smeditationasimaginedfromMichelangelo’sdrawing). AstheJesuitpreacherFrancisBorgia (1510-1572),aclosefriendofIgnatius,wroteintheintroductiontohisplannedbookofmeditationson theLifeofChrist,imagesplayanimportantroleinenablingadeeperandmoreconcentratedmeditation: In order to achieve greater facility in meditation, one places before oneself an image showingthegospelstory[“theevangelicalmystery”];andthus,beforecommencingthe meditation,onewillgazeupontheimageandtakeespecialcareinobservingthatwhichit hastoshow,inorderthebettertocontemplateitasonemeditates,andtoderivegreater benefitfromit;becausethefunctionoftheimageis,asitwere,togivetasteandflavourto thefoodonehastoeat,insuchawaythatoneisnotsatisfieduntilonehaseatenit;and alsoinsuchawaythatunderstandingwillreflectuponandworkonthatwhichithasto meditate,atconsiderablecostandefforttoitself. Andthistakesplacewithgreatercertainty, sincetheimageconformscloselytothegospel,andbecausemeditatingcaneasilydeceive one,asonetakesonethingforanotherandleavesoutthetracesoftheHolyGospel,which oneshouldrespectbothinsmallandlargedetails,andsoshouldnotinclineeithertoleft orright(Nicolau1949,p. 169). WhileBorgia’stextwasneverbroughttofruition,hisfriendandfellowcollaboratorwithIgnatius, JeromeNadal(1507–1580),publishedatextonmeditation,featuringillustrationstodirectthefocusof thepersonmeditatingandtolimitanydistractions,whichservedasthestandardformanydevotional worksfromtheseventeenth-centuryon(Freedberg1989,pp. 181–82).21 WhileColonna’stextdoesnot 20 “withmeditationsandcontemplation,shefedhersoulwithheavenlyfood”(Marinella2008,p.204);“shegazedwitha sharpmentaleye,andcontemplatedonthespiltblood,thebitterwounds,andHispainfuldeath”(p.227);“Sheremained nightanddayincontinuousprayer,meditation,andfasting”(p.234). 21 ThismayalsohavebeenMarinella’sintentasthe1602editionofherLavitadiMariaVerginecontainsengravings. Religions2018,9,59 10of13 reproducetheimagethatMichelangelodrewforher,itispossibletosurmisethatColonna’sreflection onthedepthofMary’smeditationismorefocusedandprecisebecauseshehadanimageinfrontof hertoanalyzeandinterpret.22 The last author’s work we study in this three-week segment of the course, EleonoraMontalvo’sunpublished dramatic verse hagiography, Vita della Santissima Vergine Maria, which Montalvo wrote for and had performed by the women of the lay conservatories she founded in seventeenth-century Florence, draws on the power of theater to inspire and promote meditation.23 Writing in the middle of the seventeenth century, Montalvo would have been influenced, as was Marinella, by Baroque literary conventions and the early modern theological debate on Marian devotion. LikeMarinella’sbiographyofMary,Montalvo’spoetichagiographyemphasizesthewhat ofmeditation(visuallystrikingdetailsoftheNativityandPassion)and,similartoColonna’splaint, Montalvo’s composition also establishes the how of meditation (through Mary’s prayers and contemplationwhileChristisonthecrossandafterhisAscension). ButwhatsetsMontalvo’swork apartfromtheothertwonarrativesisthatMontalvoimplementsthemediumoftheaterasadistinctive waytoimproveone’spracticeofmeditation. IntheintroductiontotheninthsectionoftheVitadella SantissimaVergineMaria,onthePassionofChrist,Montalvo’sinstructionsstatethattheperformer whorepresentsMaryshouldchangefromher“QueenoftheAngelsdress”(“abitodiReginadegli Angeli”)toa“mourningdressandblackveil”(“abitolugubreenerovelo”)(Montalvon.d.,fol. 37)24 anddeclarethattheverypurposeoftheperformanceis,infact,tohelpaudiencemembersimprove theirpracticeofmeditation: Sontornatadinuovoaraccontarvi DelFigliolmiol’asperissimapassione Acciòchevoipossiateprepararvi Amegliofarnelameditazione(Montalvon.d.,fol. 38). [Ihavecomebackagaintotellyou AboutthemoststingingPassionofmyson Sothatyoucanprepareyourselves Toimproveyourmeditationofit.] Appearinginhernewcostume,whichreflectsthetransitioninearlymodernvisualculturefromthe regalMarytoamoreimitableMarywhodressesincontemporarymourningdress, theperformer preparesheraudienceforapowerfulimageoftheVirginMary’soutwardexpressionofherdeepinner sorrow. Inthisscene,theperformerrecitesgruesomedetailsandharshrhymesinordertobringto mindgraphicimagesofChrist’sblood-stainedandlaceratedbodyhangingfromthecrossandthrough whichheraudiencecouldexperiencesensoryimpressionswhenrecallingtheseimagesduringtheir meditationpractice. In creating poetic images to engage the physical senses and make the most impact on the meditation practices of the performer and the young women of the audience, Montalvo appears toimplementforthestagetheadvicethatCardinalGabrielePaleotti(1522–1597)givesinhisDiscorso intornoalleimaginisacreeprofanetopost-Tridentineartistsandwriters,whoshouldseekwithsimilar intenttocreatematerialthatshapesanaudience’sdesiretoobeyGod’swill: [I]fwordsthatareheardorreadaresoeffectiveatmovingoursenses,thenpicturesthat radiatepiety,modesty,holinessanddevotionmustpierceinsideuswithmuchmoreforce 22 StudyingTorquatoTasso’sLelacrimedellaBeataVergineinconjunctionwithColonna’splaintwouldprovideaninteresting parallelsinceitisbelievedthatTassowasalsoinspiredbyanimageoftheVirgin(nowlost)tocomposehis25-octavepoem (Mazzotta2012,pp.xiv–xv). 23 Montalvo’sdramatichagiographieswereperformedatLaQuieteandIlConventino,twolayconservatoriesforwomenthat Montalvofoundedinseventeenth-centuryFlorence.FormoreonMontalvo’slayconservatoriesandplays,seemyarticle,“Teaching IgnatianSpiritualitytoRichandPoorGirlsthroughDramaticPerformanceinSeventeenth-CenturyFlorence”(Haraguchi2016). 24 TranslationsofMontalvo’sVitadellaSantissimaVergineMariaaremine.

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such apocryphal texts as the Protevangelium of James, the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, and the Legenda. Aurea of Jacopus de Varagine, Virginia Cox 2011, (n. 5, p. visit Elizabeth, takes 'two elderly women,' Anna's old servants, with her, presumably inherited on her mother's death, and possibly a
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