The Veil as Signifier in Contemporary Art

69 Pages·2011·12.17 MB·English

by  Annique Heijmans

The
 Veil
 as
 Signifier
 in

Contemporary
 Art

Annique
 Heijmans

  6116531

  [email protected]

  [email protected]

  May
 2011

Universiteit
 van
 Amsterdam

Master
 Thesis
 Art
 History

Nieuwste
 Tijd
The Veil as Signifier in Contemporary Art

THE VEIL AS SIGNIFIER IN CONTEMPORARY ART
Annique
 Heijmans

6116531

May
 2011

Master
 Kunstgeschiedenis,
 Nieuwste
 Tijd

Supervisor:
 Prof.
 dr.
 D.
 Cherry

  2
The Veil as Signifier in Contemporary Art

Contents

Introduction………………………………………………………..
  4

The
 Complexity
 of
 the
 Veil’s
 Significance………………
  7

Previous
 Art
 Projects
 dealing
 with
 the
 Veil……………
  13

Shadi
 Ghadirian……………………………………………………
  22

Zineb
 Sedira…………………………………………………………
  33

Martine
 Stig………………………………………………………….
  42

Hussein
 Chalayan…………………………………………………
  50

Conclusion……………………………………………………………
  59

Bibliography…………………………………………………………
  63

Images
 References………………………………………………..
  67

Summary………………………………………………………………
  68

  3
The Veil as Signifier in Contemporary Art

Introduction

This
 thesis
 is
 the
 final
 process
 for
 the
 completion
 of
 my
 Master’s
 degree
 Art
 History,
 Nieuwste

Tijd.
 During
 my
 study
 I
 have
 always
 been
 interested
 in
 how
 women
 are
 depicted
 in
 art.
 The

female
 portrait
 is
 a
 theme
 that
 returns
 in
 each
 art
 historical
 period.

 And
 every
 period
 is
 defined

by
 a
 new
 concept
 and
 image
 of
 the
 time
 of
 the
 woman.
 From
 the
 Venus
 of
 Willendorf
 (ca.
 22,000

BCE)
 to
 the
 mythological
 figures
 we
 can
 see
 with
 the
 old
 Greeks
 and
 Romans
 and
 which
 are

reinvented
 in
 the
 Renaissance,
 to
 the
 women
 of
 Rubens,
 Picasso
 and
 the
 Expressionists,

extremes
 are
 depicted;
 the
 woman
 represents
 beauty,
 sexuality,
 fertility,
 nature
 and
 passion.
 She

stands
 for
 the
 mother
 and
 the
 domestic
 life,
 but
 also
 her
 more
 obscure,
 vague
 personality
 is
 time

and
 again
 visualized.

Nowadays
 one
 of
 the
 most
 discussed
 and
 depicted
 female
 figures
 is
 that
 of
 the
 veiled,
 Muslim

woman,
 a
 subject,
 which
 is
 closely
 related
 to
 current
 issues
 as
 multiculturalism,
 post
 colonialism,

nationalism,
 gender
 politics,
 integration,
 Westernization
 and
 Anti-­‐Westernization
 and

Islamization.
 In
 this
 age
 of
 globalization,
 a
 shift
 of
 focus
 can
 be
 noticed,
 from
 our
 own
 ‘Western’

culture
 to
 that
 of
 the
 worldwide
 humanity.
 People
 from
 countries
 all
 over
 the
 world
 and

dissimilar
 cultures
 have
 mingled.
 People
 have
 been
 relocated
 over
 the
 world,
 whether
 for
 work,

or
 other
 political
 or
 economical
 reasons.
 But
 has
 met
 with,
 differences
 in
 cultural
 conception
 can

lead
 to
 certain
 frictions.
 Veiling
 is
 one
 of
 the
 cultural
 differences
 that
 found
 a
 lot
 of
 resistance.

But
 as
 pointed
 out
 by
 the
 political
 debates,
 extensively
 discussed
 in
 the
 media
 it
 is
 a
 sensitive

topic
 with
 many
 different
 views.

The
 aim
 of
 this
 thesis
 is
 to
 define
 the
 multifaceted
 structures
 and
 different
 approaches
 that
 play

part
 in
 interpreting
 contemporary
 art
 which
 includes
 a
 Muslim
 veil
 in
 its
 different
 forms,
 from

only
 a
 headscarf
 to
 head
 to
 food
 covering.
 Art
 is
 characterizing
 the
 image
 of
 time
 and
 even
 looks

ahead.

 How
 is
 the
 veil
 presented
 in
 contemporary
 art
 and
 in
 what
 sense
 the
 artist
 reflect
 on
 the

ethical
 dilemma
 veiling
 has
 become?
 Is
 the
 veil
 used
 as
 signifier
 in
 contemporary
 art?
 And
 if
 so,

how
 does
 it
 function
 as
 such?
 How
 does
 the
 degree
 of
 veiling
 influence
 our
 way
 of
 viewing?
 What

is
 the
 impact
 if
 a
 thick
 black
 fabric
 conceals
 the
 whole
 body?

 Does
 it
 make
 a
 difference
 if
 only

the
 hair
 is
 covered
 with
 a
 vividly
 patterned
 headscarf?

In
 the
 first
 chapter
 the
 veil
 in
 art
 is
 placed
 in
 a
 historical
 context.
 The
 problems
 considering

interpreting
 the
 complex
 symbolism
 of
 the
 veil
 in
 present-­‐day
 are
 also
 discussed.

 The
 veil
 has

  4
The Veil as Signifier in Contemporary Art

become
 a
 symbol
 with
 a
 strong
 socio-­‐political
 connotation.
 What
 is
 it
 that
 makes
 this
 discourse

so
 complex?
 What
 are
 the
 different
 viewpoints
 considering
 veiling?

Over
 the
 last
 years
 a
 few
 art
 projects
 have
 been
 organized
 with
 the
 veil
 as
 subject.
 The
 fixed

discourse
 in
 Western
 countries
 about
 the
 Islam
 turn
 out
 to
 be
 an
 inspiration
 for
 artists
 and

curators.
 The
 different
 perspectives
 pointed
 out
 by
 these
 exhibitions
 are
 defined
 in
 the
 second

chapter.
 In
 which
 way
 can
 art
 and
 art
 projects
 contribute
 to
 the
 discourse
 of
 the
 veil?

In
 the
 next
 chapters
 the
 work
 of
 four
 different
 artists
 with
 a
 different
 cultural
 background,
 and

therefore
 different
 histories
 considering
 the
 veil,
 is
 discussed.

 In
 what
 way
 have
 these
 artists

used
 the
 veil
 as
 a
 signifier?
 These
 case
 studies
 illustrate
 the
 versatility
 of
 the
 veil
 as
 subject
 and

the
 different
 approaches
 in
 different
 societies.
 Is
 the
 artist
 expressing
 his
 vision
 about

suppression,
 exclusion,
 power,
 identity,
 politics
 or
 religion
 with
 his
 work
 or
 does
 he
 address
 to
 a

personal
 issue?

 Which
 tools
 do
 the
 artists
 use
 to
 make
 their
 statement
 clear?

In
 the
 art
 practice
 of
 the
 Iranian
 artist
 Shadi
 Ghaderian
 (Iran
 1974),
 gender
 and
 the
 veiled

woman
 are
 returning
 themes.
 Iran,
 the
 country
 where
 Ghaderian
 is
 raised
 and
 still
 works,
 knows

changing
 attitudes
 to
 veiling.
 For
 each
 generation
 veiling
 has
 a
 different
 meaning.
 In
 each
 of
 her

series
 Ghaderian
 points
 out
 a
 different
 aspect
 of
 veiling.

 Naturally
 the
 topic
 of
 the
 veil
 has
 to

deal
 with
 a
 lot
 of
 prejudices.
 How
 do
 artist
 cope
 with
 this?
 Can
 they
 invalidate
 the
 stereotype?

In
 the
 work
 of
 Zineb
 Sedira
 (Algeria,
 1963)
 the
 veil
 is
 also
 a
 recurring
 subject
 matter,
 but

Sedira’s
 work
 addresses
 more
 to
 the
 invisible,
 mental
 veil.

 Sedira
 was
 brought
 up
 between

different
 cultures,
 Algeria
 and
 France,
 she
 is
 very
 aware
 of
 her
 position
 as
 an
 immigrant,
 and
 the

hanging
 between
 different
 cultures.
 The
 difficulties
 she
 experienced
 considering
 communication

in
 words
 and
 images
 are
 depicted
 in
 her
 art.
 Her
 work
 also
 address
 to
 the
 generation
 gap

between
 her
 and
 her
 mother
 and
 her
 own
 daughter.

The
 Dutch
 photographer
 Martine
 Stig
 (Netherlands,
 1972)
 explores
 in
 her
 artistical
 practice

mainly
 stereotypes,
 identity
 and
 the
 function
 of
 photography.
 For
 the
 series
 Sisters,
 she
 pictured

totally
 veiled
 students,
 in
 the
 way
 we,
 in
 a
 Western
 sense,
 are
 used
 to
 record
 portraits.
 What
 is

the
 use
 of
 picturing
 veiled
 women
 if
 their
 appearance,
 their
 identity,
 is
 hidden?
 How
 do
 artists

deal
 with
 the
 contrast
 of
 their
 own
 culture
 and
 the
 “other”?

 How
 do
 we
 look
 in
 Netherlands
 at

veiling?
 Veils
 and
 ideas
 about
 veiling
 are
 specific
 to
 different
 cultures
 and
 societies.

  5
The Veil as Signifier in Contemporary Art

And
 the
 last
 artist
 that
 is
 discussed
 is
 the
 fashion
 designer
 Hussein
 Chalayan
 (Turkey,
 1970)
 who

moves
 with
 his
 conceptual
 designs
 between
 art
 and
 fashion.
 Chalayan
 is
 raised
 in
 Cyprus,
 an

island
 standing
 at
 the
 crossroads
 of
 three
 continents.
 The
 culture
 of
 Cyprus
 is
 divided
 between

the
 two
 distinct
 cultures
 of
 Greece
 and
 Turkey.
 Each
 community
 maintains
 its
 own
 culture.

Chalayan
 tries
 in
 his
 work
 to
 cross
 the
 cultural
 borders.
 Maybe
 the
 power
 relation
 between
 the

West
 and
 the
 East
 is
 best
 illustrated
 in
 fashion;
 here
 the
 differences
 in
 conceptions
 in
 values
 are

materially
 represented.
 Does
 the
 Western
 fashion
 industry
 influence
 the
 veiling
 practice
 of

Muslim
 girls,
 and
 the
 other
 way
 round:
 does
 the
 veil
 as
 a
 piece
 of
 garment
 influences
 the
 fashion

industry?
 And
 can
 it
 thereby
 contribute
 to
 an
 acceptance
 in
 Western
 society?

There
 are
 many
 more
 artists
 that
 have
 taken
 the
 veil
 as
 subject
 for
 their
 art.
 The
 artists

discussed
 in
 this
 thesis
 are
 selected
 for
 their
 difference
 in
 cultural
 background,
 to
 illustrate
 the

diversity
 in
 approach
 considering
 the
 topic
 of
 the
 veil.
 I
 am
 aware
 of
 the
 complexity
 of
 the

terminology;
 which
 countries
 actually
 belong
 to
 the
 ‘Middle
 East’,
 what
 can
 be
 considered
 as

‘Arabic’.
 Can
 we
 define
 ‘the
 East’
 and
 ‘the
 West’?
 For
 this
 thesis
 I
 tried
 to
 choose
 the
 term
 that

applies
 best
 in
 the
 context
 it
 is
 used.
 During
 my
 research
 I
 was
 confronted
 with
 the
 sensibilities

of
 the
 discussed
 issues.
 In
 each
 case
 I
 tried
 to
 stay
 as
 neutral
 as
 possible.

1.
 Anita
 Kunz,
 Girls
 Will
 be
 Girls,
 2006.

  6
The Veil as Signifier in Contemporary Art

The complexity of the veilʼs significance

For
 centuries
 the
 veil
 has
 been
 used
 in
 different
 cultures
 as
 well
 for
 cultural,
 ritual
 or
 religious

purpose.
 In
 the
 Byzantium
 veiling
 was
 among
 many
 a
 privilege,
 belonging
 to
 women
 of
 the

upper
 classes
 and
 aspired
 to
 by
 lower
 class
 women.1
 Veiled
 women
 are
 at
 all
 times
 visualized
 in

art.
 Most
 common,
 and
 probably
 the
 most
 depicted
 is
 the
 Holy
 Virgin
 Mary.

 These
 days
 an
 image

of
 a
 veiled
 woman
 almost
 immediately
 directs
 to
 the
 veiled
 Muslim
 women.

The
 veil
 is
 now,
 from
 a
 Western
 stereotypical
 view,
 primarily
 associated
 with
 the
 Islam,
 gender

relations
 and
 women’s
 rights.

 The
 mysterious,
 sexy,
 exotic,
 oriental
 veiled
 harem
 girls
 as
 we

know
 from
 the
 popular
 nineteenth
 century
 paintings
 of
 Ingres,
 Delacroix
 and
 Gerome
 are

replaced
 by
 women
 totally
 covered
 in
 thick
 black
 fabrics.
 Nevertheless
 the
 fascination
 for
 the

Eastern
 women
 has
 left
 unchanged.

 As
 the
 American,
 Iraqi
 art
 historian
 Nada
 Shabou
 outlines
 in

her
 article,
 the
 period
 following
 9/11
 marks
 a
 turning
 point
 in
 a
 renewed
 interest
 in
 all
 things

‘Middle
 East’,
 including
 contemporary
 art.2
 The
 festish
 for
 the
 veil
 always
 have
 been
 an
 absolute

binary
 separating
 ‘East’
 and
 ‘West’.

 It
 evoked,
 fantasy,
 exoticism
 and
 desire.
 In
 the
 aftermath
 of

9/11
 this
 shifted
 from
 a
 gaze
 of
 desire
 to
 that
 of
 fear
 only
 solidified
 the
 binary.
 The
 veil
 became
 a

signifier
 of
 Muslim
 ‘aggression’
 against
 the
 West.3

The
 Russian
 art
 collective
 AES
 art4
 visualised
 the
 tension
 between
 East
 and
 West
 in
 their
 art,

their
 work
 addresses
 many
 strategically
 levels,
 geographical,
 economic,
 cultural
 and
 political.

The
 Witnesses
 of
 the
 Future,
 Islamic
 Project
 (1996)
 was
 an
 installation
 and
 performance
 in
 which

AES
 construct
 a
 vision
 of
 the
 role
 of
 the
 Islam
 in
 future;
 they
 made
 a
 visualization
 of
 the

neologism
 “Islamophobia”
 referring
 to
 the
 exorbitant
 and
 irrational
 fear
 of
 Islam
 in
 Western

society.

 For
 this
 project
 AES
 was
 inspired
 by
 Samuel
 Huntington’s
 popular
 political
 paradigm
 of

the
 mid
 1990’s,
 which
 proposed
 a
 future
 in
 which
 Islamic
 and
 Western
 cultures
 would
 come

violently
 into
 collision.5

 Huntington,
 in
 his
 thesis
 The
 Clash
 of
 Civilizations,
 argues
 the

fundamental
 source
 of
 conflict
 would
 be
 cultural
 one,
 instead
 of
 primarily
 ideological
 or

economic.

1
 Kahf,
 2008,
 p
 27

2
 Shadou,
 2009,
 pp.
 14-­‐15

3
 Shadou,
 2009,
 p.
 21

4
 AES
 art
 group
 was
 established
 in
 1987
 and
 comprises
 three
 Russian
 Jewish
 artists:
 Tatiana
 Arzamasova

(born
 1955),
 Lev
 Evzovich
 (born
 1958)
 and
 Evgeny
 Svyatsky
 (born
 1957),
 all
 of
 whom
 live
 and
 work
 in

Moscow.
 Using
 wit
 and
 satire,
 AES's
 digitally
 manipulated
 images
 are
 storyboards
 reflecting
 the
 deep

rooted
 insecurities
 of
 today's
 postmodern,
 postcolonial,
 post
 Cold
 War
 society.

5
 www.aes-­‐group.org

  7
The Veil as Signifier in Contemporary Art

AES
 have
 taken
 monuments
 from
 Western
 civilization
 for
 example
 The
 Big
 Ben,
 Centre
 Pompidou

as
 well
 as
 het
 Groningermuseum
 and
 transformed
 them
 into
 a
 manipulated
 image
 taken
 over
 by

the
 Islamic
 world.6

 They
 were
 promoting
 a
 set
 of
 fictitious
 Grand
 Tours,
 which
 would
 set
 out
 in

the
 year
 2006
 into
 a
 radically
 changed
 and
 dystopic
 landscape.

 One
 of
 the
 objects
 they

‘Islamized’
 was
 the
 Statue
 of
 Liberty.
 AES
 covered
 this
 universal
 symbol
 of
 freedom
 and
 liberty

with
 a
 Niqab
 and
 gave
 her
 a
 Quran
 in
 her
 hand
 (figure
 2).

 In
 the
 aftermath
 of
 9/11
 this
 image
 is

often
 used
 to
 illustrate
 the
 feared
 threat
 of
 the
 Islam.

2.
 AES
 Art
 Group,
 Witnesses
 of
 the
 future.
 Islamic
 Project,
 1996.

6
 www.aes-­‐group.org

  8
The Veil as Signifier in Contemporary Art

The
 veil
 is
 likely
 to
 be
 the
 most
 outwardly
 visible
 and
 most
 publicly
 contested
 sign
 and
 site
 of

gendered
 difference
 in
 Islamic
 cultures
 across
 the
 world.
 And
 therefore
 it
 has
 become
 the

subject
 of
 an
 over-­‐mediated
 intense
 legal
 and
 political
 debate.
 This
 has
 leaded
 to
 the
 fact
 the
 veil,

in
 Muslim
 sense,
 in
 this
 era,
 especially
 post
 9-­‐11,
 in
 its
 many
 forms
 for
 instance
 the
 headscarf,

hijab,
 burqa
 or
 niqab
 7,
 has
 become
 a
 very
 strong
 symbol.

 The
 veil
 has
 now
 received,
 next
 to
 the

religious,
 an
 indissoluble
 political
 and
 social
 connotation.
 The
 continuous
 and
 discontinuous

histories
 and
 geographies
 of
 the
 veil
 are
 complex,
 and
 are
 subject
 of
 much
 debate
 across
 a
 range

of
 different
 sites
 and
 from
 different
 perspectives.

 Distinctions
 can
 be
 made
 between
 intimacy

and
 publicity,
 between
 concealing
 and
 showing,
 between
 hiding
 and
 seeing,
 as
 well
 as
 society’s

acceptance
 and
 non-­‐acceptance.
 As
 argued
 by
 Jennifer
 Heath
 in
 the
 introduction
 to
 The
 Veil,
 an

anthology
 in
 which
 women
 writers
 from
 different
 cultures
 discuss
 the
 veil
 in
 the
 broadest
 sense:

“Today,
 veiling
 has
 become
 globally
 polarizing,
 a
 locus
 for
 the
 struggle
 between
 Islam
 and
 the

West
 and
 between
 contemporary
 and
 traditional
 interpretations
 of
 Islam.”8

 The
 veiling

discourse
 is
 a
 discussion
 that
 derives
 from
 the
 broader
 debate
 on
 multiculturalism.
 At
 the

beginning
 the
 veil
 is
 a
 piece
 of
 garment
 but
 it
 is
 embedded
 in
 a
 social
 and
 political
 framework

and
 the
 discussion
 about
 being
 allowed
 to
 wear
 or
 -­‐
 not
 to
 wear
 -­‐
 a
 veil,
 has
 become
 a
 complex

ethical
 dilemma.

In
 several
 Western
 countries,
 most
 particular
 France
 but
 also
 in
 the
 Netherlands,
 there
 are

headscarf
 controversies
 going
 on,
 in
 which
 opponents
 try
 to
 disallow
 the
 wearing
 of
 face

covering
 garments
 for
 women
 in
 public
 spaces.
 These
 “headscarf
 debates”
 are
 controversial
 and

create
 a
 lot
 of
 opposing
 reactions
 and
 pull
 the
 West
 and
 East
 further
 apart.

 Opponents
 see
 the

veil
 as
 a
 threat
 for
 the
 human
 rights.
 Another
 often
 heard
 argument
 is
 that
 women
 who
 are

veiled
 are
 believed
 to
 slow
 down
 the
 integration.
 And
 in
 our
 fear
 for
 terrorism
 the
 argument
 of

safety
 comes
 up,
 we
 must
 be
 able
 to
 see
 what
 women
 are
 hiding
 underneath
 their
 clothes.

The
 Islam
 sumptuary
 laws,
 based
 upon
 teachings
 found
 in
 the
 Qur’an
 and
 Hadiths9,
 tell
 how
 men

and
 women
 are
 required
 to
 be
 dressed.
 Women
 are
 required
 to
 wear
 a
 modest
 outfit;
 they
 have

to
 cover
 their
 bodies
 to
 protect
 themselves
 for
 the
 male
 gaze.
 But
 that
 what
 is
 qualified
 as

7
 Headscarf
 (or
 Hijab
 or
 Hidjab):

 is
 only
 for
 covering
 the
 hair
 and
 part
 of
 the
 face.
 Hidjab
 in
 Arabic
 also

refers
 to
 modesty,
 privacy
 and
 morality.
 Nikab
 (or
 Nikaab,
 niqab
 or
 Niquaab)
 is
 an
 Arabic
 term
 for
 the
 veil

that
 covers
 the
 whole
 face
 except
 for
 the
 eyes.
 Traditionally
 worn
 only
 by
 orthodox
 Islamic
 women.

Chador:
 Is
 a
 Persian
 garment
 covers
 the
 whole
 body,
 except
 from
 the
 face
 to
 hide
 feminine
 forms.

Burka
 (or
 Burqa):
 Covers
 the
 whole
 body,
 also
 the
 eyes
 are
 hidden
 behind
 a
 net
 of
 grill.
 Under
 the
 regime

of
 the
 Taliban
 women
 in
 Afghanistan
 were
 required
 to
 wear
 a
 Burqa.

8
 Heath,
 2008,
 p.
 1

9
 Hadiths:
 narrations
 concerning
 the
 words
 and
 deeds
 of
 the
 Islamic
 prophet
 Muhammad.
 Hadith
 are

regarded
 by
 traditional
 Islamic
 schools
 of
 jurisprudence
 as
 important
 tools
 for
 understanding
 the
 Qur’an

and
 in
 matter
 for
 jurisprudence.

  9
The Veil as Signifier in Contemporary Art

‘modest’,
 and
 therewith
 the
 levelling
 of
 veiling
 varies
 in
 different
 Muslim
 societies;
 each
 country

has
 its
 own
 native
 tradition.
 Each
 Muslim
 state
 is
 culturally,
 politically
 economically
 and
 socially

different.
 Also
 because
 of
 migration
 these
 differences
 become
 visible.

 Women
 who
 even
 wear
 a

headscarf,
 hijab,
 in
 a
 ‘Western’
 society
 can
 be
 confronted
 with
 a
 lot
 of
 prejudices
 like:
 she
 is
 truly

dedicated
 to
 her
 religion,
 she
 is
 very
 conservative,
 is
 suppressed
 by
 the
 males
 of
 her
 family,
 she

has
 had
 no
 education
 and
 is
 ignorant.

Pamela
 K.
 Taylor,
 who
 calls
 herself
 a
 modern
 Muslim
 and
 is
 co-­‐founder
 of
 Muslims
 for

Progressive
 Values,
 writes
 in
 a
 personal
 essay,
 she
 wears
 a
 hijab
 as
 a
 clear
 statement,
 she
 did
 not

want
 to
 be
 judged
 by
 her
 body,
 her
 beauty
 or
 the
 lack
 thereof,
 but
 as
 an
 individual,
 for
 her

personality,
 her
 character,
 and
 her
 accomplishments.
 For
 her
 veiling
 was
 also
 a
 rejection
 of
 the

objectification
 of
 women.10
 She
 quickly
 found
 out
 that
 this
 was
 paradoxical
 and
 that
 she

swapped
 from
 the
 one
 objectification
 in
 to
 the
 other.

From
 a
 Western
 view
 we
 sometimes
 look
 at
 veiled
 women
 with
 a
 compassion
 or
 condescending

sympathy.
 You
 could
 say
 veiled
 women
 are
 victimized.
 But
 for
 many
 women,
 not
 living
 in
 a

regime
 where
 veiling
 is
 required,
 veiling
 can
 be
 a
 well-­‐considered
 choice
 of
 their
 own.
 Every

woman
 has
 her
 own
 reason
 to
 be
 veiled.
 Considering
 the
 subject
 of
 the
 veil,
 personal
 stories
 are

significant
 in
 understanding
 and
 to
 broaden
 up
 the
 debate.
 The
 experiences
 of
 the
 veiled
 women

are
 more
 important
 than
 the
 interpretations
 of
 academics
 and
 politicians.

Rita
 Stephan
 has
 grown
 up
 in
 Syria
 as
 a
 conservative
 Christian,
 moved
 on
 the
 age
 of
 sixteen
 to

the
 United
 States
 and
 is
 now
 as
 academic
 researcher
 promoting
 multicultural
 understanding.
 In

her
 text
 Virtue
 and
 Sin
 she
 explains
 her
 situation
 as
 an
 unveiled
 woman
 living
 in
 a
 veiled
 society.

Stephan
 gives
 four
 different
 perceptions
 of
 how
 the
 veiling
 of
 women
 symbolizes
 conservatism

and
 social
 control
 among
 Muslims.
 Some
 Muslims
 consider
 all
 women’s
 private
 references
 to

shame,
 weakness,
 and
 immaturity
 and
 therefore
 they
 have
 to
 cover
 themselves.
 Others
 consider

women
 equal
 to
 men
 in
 rights
 and
 responsibilities;
 veiling
 for
 them
 is
 just
 an
 act
 of
 modesty.
 A

third
 group
 argues
 that
 veiling
 is
 not
 an
 indicator
 of
 oppression
 but
 a
 preventive
 and
 protective

measure
 for
 social
 control.
 The
 veil
 prevents
 men
 from
 looking
 at
 women
 to
 desire
 them;

therefore
 it
 protects
 their
 souls
 from
 falling
 into
 sin
 and
 prevents
 social
 problems.

 A
 fourth

group
 claims
 that
 conservative
 attitudes,
 including
 veiling,
 were
 reactions
 to
 imperialism
 and

colonialism.
 Western
 cultures
 swept
 away
 many
 aspects
 of
 Middle
 Eastern
 and
 Muslim

traditions.
 They
 felt
 the
 need
 to
 maintain
 their
 girls’
 honour
 as
 an
 authentic
 and
 pure
 cultural

10
 Taylor,
 2003,
 pp.
 120-­‐122

  10