the transmission of neighborhood risk through caregiver aggression and depression

94 Pages·2016·2.51 MB·English

by  Kelly E. Amrhein

AN ANALYSIS OF OUTCOMES IN MALTREATED YOUTH: THE TRANSMISSION OF
NEIGHBORHOOD RISK THROUGH CAREGIVER AGGRESSION AND DEPRESSION

Kelly E. Amrhein

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green
State University in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
August 2016
Committee:
Carolyn Tompsett, Advisor
Danielle Kuhl
Graduate Faculty Representative
Eric Dubow
Marie Tisak
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ABSTRACT

Carolyn Tompsett, Advisor

Resilience to childhood maltreatment, or the ability of children to make a “good”
adjustment despite the odds (Kerig, Ludlow, & Wenar, 2012), has gained widespread attention in
the child maltreatment literature. Although individual child and caregiver factors that contribute
to the development of resilience have been thoroughly examined, other factors have received less
attention in the resilience literature, such as the neighborhood in which the maltreated child
resides. The current study used path analysis to examine how neighborhood collective efficacy
influences caregiver depression and aggression, which in turn were expected to influence the
youth outcomes of internalizing, externalizing, delinquency, substance use, and
education/employment over time. The overall proposed model did not provide an adequate fit for
the data. However, two sub-models including aggression and depression as the sole mediators
provided adequate fit, though the parameter estimates were not significant in these models.
Despite this outcome, several interesting findings emerged. Neighborhood collective efficacy at
age 12 was not correlated with any youth outcomes at age 18. Finally, caregiver psychological
aggression, but not physical aggression, was positively associated with youth outcomes at age
18. Directions for future research and implications for policies are discussed.
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This dissertation is dedicated to the loving memory of my brother and grandfather,
Robert Amrhein and Andrew DeVolder. Robert entered this world as a curious scientist,
exploring humanity and working to better the human condition throughout his too short life. His
battle with cancer and dedication to service in the face of his own personal struggle touched the
lives of countless people and inspired them to become better versions of themselves. My
grandfather instilled in me this same sense of curiosity, and continually encouraged me to
explore my passion for learning. His dedication to family allowed me the support to reach for my
goals. Thank you for your love, support, and positive influence on my life.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the many individuals who helped guide me on this dissertation
through providing constructive feedback, support, and encouragement along the way. This work
would not have been possible without the help of my advisor, Carolyn Tompsett. Thank you for
allowing me to explore my interests and supporting me both throughout my time in the doctoral
program and in particular on this manuscript. Thank you to my committee members, Marie
Tisak, Eric Dubow, and Danielle Kuhl, whose feedback has made this project stronger. Thank
you also to my peers who have supported me throughout this process and volunteered their time
to read and provide comments on this manuscript—your effort and encouragement was
invaluable: Tony Bonadio, Jennifer Lackey, Morgan Dynes, Sarah Hassan, and Jenna Marx. A
special thanks goes to my partner, Angela Koenigs, who edited various drafts of this work in
addition to her support and encouragement in my life. I am indebted to your selflessness and
commitment to our family. Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Kathy and Jerry, and
grandmother, Alyce DeVolder, for your unwavering support throughout my life. Your love and
encouragement has undoubtedly influenced me and helped me to achieve my goals.
Finally, the data used in this dissertation were made available by the National Data
Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, and have been used with
permission. Data from Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN)
Assessments 0-12 were originally collected by Desmond K. Runyan, Howard Dubowitz, Diana J.
English, Jonathan Kotch, Alan Litrownik, Richard Thompson and Terri Lewis & The
LONGSCAN Investigator Group. Funding for the project was provided by the Office on Child
Abuse and Neglect (OCAN), Children's Bureau, Administration for Children and Families, Dept.
of Health and Human Services (The National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN),
under the Office of Human Services funded this consortium of studies during the early years of
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data collection from 04/01/1991 until NCCAN became part of OCAN in 1998.) (Award Number:
90CA1467, 90CA1481, 90CA1466, 90CA1458, 90CA1572, 90CA1569, 90CA1568, 90CA1566,
90CA1678, 90CA1681, 90CA1680, 90CA1676, 90CA1677, 90CA1679, 90CA1744, 90CA1745,
90CA1746, 90CA1747, 90CA1748, 90CA1749). The collector of the original data, the funder,
NDACAN, Cornell University and their agents or employees bear no responsibility for the
analyses or interpretations presented here.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1
Resilience ........................................................................................................................ 2
Pathways to Resilient Adaptation .................................................................................... 3
Neighborhood Factors and Resilient Adaptation ............................................................ 5
Caregiver variables as mediators of neighborhood effects on youth outcomes . 7
Neighborhood impact on caregiver-to-child aggression ........................ 8
Caregiver aggression and resilient functioning ...................................... 9
Neighborhood impact on caregiver depression .................................... 10
Caregiver depression and resilient functioning .................................... 11
Youth internalizing and externalizing over time .............................................. 13
Current Study ................................................................................................................ 14
Statement of Hypotheses .............................................................................................. 15
Hypothesis 1: Neighborhood to caregiver variables ........................................ 15
Hypothesis 2: Caregiver aggression to child outcomes .................................... 15
Hypothesis 3: Caregiver depression to child outcomes .................................... 15
Hypothesis 4: Neighborhood direct effects on child outcomes ........................ 15
Hypothesis 5: Mediation model of neighborhood effects through caregiver-to-
child aggression ................................................................................................ 15
Hypothesis 6: Mediation model of neighborhood effects through caregiver
depression ......................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER II. METHOD ......................................................................................................... 17
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Sample and Procedure .................................................................................................. 17
Participant Demographics ................................................................................ 17
Caregiver Demographics .................................................................................. 17
Data Collection Sites ........................................................................................ 19
Types of Maltreatment Endorsed ................................................................................. 21
Caregiver-as-Abuser Groupings ................................................................................... 22
Measures ....................................................................................................................... 23
Neighborhood Measures ................................................................................... 23
Collective Efficacy ............................................................................... 23
Caregiver Measures .......................................................................................... 24
Conflict-Tactics Scale, Parent-to-Child (CTS-PC) .............................. 24
Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) .......... 25
Child Outcome Measures ................................................................................. 25
Achenbach Scales—Youth Self Report (YSR) and Child Behavior
Checklist (CBCL) ................................................................................. 25
The National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule for
Children (DISC-IV) .............................................................................. 26
Delinquent and Violent Behavior ......................................................... 27
Young Adult Demographics ................................................................. 27
CHAPTER III. RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 29
Descriptive Analyses .................................................................................................... 29
Attrition analyses .............................................................................................. 29
Collective Efficacy ........................................................................................... 32
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Conflict-Tactics Scale, Parent to Child ............................................................ 32
Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale ..................................... 33
Delinquency ...................................................................................................... 33
Substance Use ................................................................................................... 34
Education and Employment ............................................................................. 35
Internalizing and Externalizing ........................................................................ 36
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) ................................................................................. 36
Correlation Analyses .................................................................................................... 38
T-tests ........................................................................................................................... 39
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) ......................................................... 40
Path Analysis Model ..................................................................................................... 45
Exploratory Analyses ................................................................................................... 48
Geographic Location ........................................................................................ 48
Evaluating Overall Model with Only Biological Mothers ............................... 48
Examining Effect-Size Differences in Collective Efficacy between Maltreated and
Non-Maltreated Youth ...................................................................................... 49
Regression Examining Collective Efficacy and Caregiver Depression ........... 50
CHAPTER IV. DISCUSSION ................................................................................................. 53
Examining Collective Efficacy Null Findings ............................................................. 54
Collective Efficacy and Caregiver Aggression/Depression ............................. 54
Collective Efficacy and Youth Outcomes ........................................................ 55
Caregiver Aggression/Depression and Youth Outcomes ............................................. 57
Attrition and Selection Bias .......................................................................................... 59
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Strengths and Limitations ............................................................................................. 60
Conclusions and Future Directions .............................................................................. 61
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 63
APPENDIX A. Collective Efficacy ......................................................................................... 76
APPENDIX B. Conflict Tactics Scale, Parent-to-Child ......................................................... 77
APPENDIX C. Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale .................................. 79
APPENDIX D. Delinquent and Violent Behavior ................................................................... 80
APPENDIX E. Young Adult Demographics ........................................................................... 81
APPENDIX F. Correlations Among Variables Across Geographic Area .............................. 82
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 Ecological systems theory .............................................................................................. 5
2 A portion of the entire structural equation model showing the a-pathways linking
collective efficacy at Time 1 (age 12) to the youth outcomes at Time 3 (age 18) ......... 7
3 A portion of the full structural equation model presenting the b-pathways linking
collective efficacy to caregiver aggression and depression ............................................ 8
4 A portion of the path analysis model displaying the c-pathways linking caregiver
aggression at Time 2 with the youth outcomes at Time 3 ............................................. 10
5 A portion of the full path analysis model presenting the c-pathways linking caregiver
depression at Time 2 with youth outcomes at Time 3 .................................................. 13
6 Proposed structural equation model ............................................................................. 14
7 Little’s (2013) half-longitudinal structural equation model ......................................... 46
8 Path analysis with caregiver aggression at youth age 14 as the mediator .................... 51
9 Path analysis with caregiver depression at youth age 14 as the mediator .................... 52