The toxicity of physically and chemically dispersed fuels to Antarctic marine invertebrates

246 Pages·2017·10.74 MB·English

Southern Cross University
ePublications@SCU
Theses
2016
The toxicity of physically and chemically dispersed
fuels to Antarctic marine invertebrates
Frances Jane Alexander
Southern Cross University
Publication details
Alexander, FJ 2016, 'The toxicity of physically and chemically dispersed fuels to Antarctic marine invertebrates', PhD thesis, Southern
Cross University, Lismore, NSW.
Copyright FJ Alexander 2016
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The toxicity of physically and
chemically dispersed fuels to
Antarctic marine invertebrates
Frances Jane Alexander
Bachelor of Science (Hons), Master of Environment
School of Environment, Science and Engineering
Southern Cross University
Submitted in fulfilment of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
25th of August 2016
Declaration

I certify that the work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief,
original, except as acknowledged in the text, and that the material has not been submitted,
either in whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other university.
I acknowledge that I have read and understood the University's rules, requirements,
procedures and policy relating to my higher degree research award and to my thesis. I certify
that I have complied with the rules, requirements, procedures and policy of the University (as
they may be from time to time).

Signed. Date 25th August 2016

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“It seems to me that the natural world is the greatest source of excitement; the greatest source
of visual beauty; the greatest source of intellectual interest. It is the greatest source of so much
in life that makes life worth living.”

Sir David Attenborough

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Abstract

The risk of a major marine fuel spill in Antarctic waters is increasing, yet there are currently
no adequate response methods to deal with such an event. Chemical fuel dispersants have not
previously been used in Antarctica, but may offer an alternative solution for spill
management. Very few data on the toxicity of physically and chemically dispersed fuels and
fuel dispersants to Antarctic marine species are available, thus preventing informed
management decisions. This research investigated the toxicity of three fuels commonly used
in Antarctica (Special Antarctic Blend diesel, marine gas oil and an intermediate fuel oil) and
of three dispersants approved for use in Australian waters (Ardrox 6120, Slickgone LTSW
and Slickgone NS). Experiments were conducted on common Antarctic nearshore
invertebrates including sea urchins (Sterechinus neumayeri), polychaetes
(Ophryotrocha orensanzi), nemerteans (Antarctonemertes sp.) and amphipods
(Paramoera walkeri).
Chemically dispersed fuel treatments contained greater proportions of higher molecular
weight hydrocarbon compounds than did physically dispersed fuel treatments. Toxicity was
highly correlated with dispersant type. Ardrox 6120 was the most toxic dispersant with and
without fuel, followed by Slickgone LTSW. Slickgone NS was by far the least toxic and
appeared to be the most effective at dispersing fuels in cold water. Dispersant type dictated
toxicity relationships between physically and chemically dispersed fuel to S. neumayeri,
O. orensanzi and Antarctonemertes sp., and results showed that chemically dispersed fuels
were consistently more toxic when created using Ardrox 6120 or Slickgone LTSW in
comparison to physically dispersed fuels. In contrast, physically dispersed fuels were more
toxic compared to chemically dispersed fuels created using Slickgone NS.
Differences in toxicity were apparent between P. walkeri and the other species tested.
Physically dispersed fuels were consistently more lethally toxic to P. walkeri than chemically
dispersed fuels and toxicity appeared to be largely influenced by the hydrocarbon composition
of water accommodated fractions. Paramoera walkeri appeared to be more sensitive to lighter
hydrocarbon fractions, specifically those encompassing known toxicants including
naphthalenes, hence further research is needed to identify toxicity responses to different
hydrocarbon compounds. Larval and juvenile life stages of S. neumayeri and P. walkeri were
more sensitive to hydrocarbons than early embryonic and adult life stages respectively.
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This work represents the first study assessing the toxicity of physically and chemically
dispersed fuels and fuel dispersants to a range of Antarctic marine invertebrates. These data
provide valuable information for decision making to minimise impacts to marine species
following a marine fuel spill event in Antarctica.
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Acknowledgements

When I began my PhD nearly four years ago, I wrote down why I had chosen to go down this
path. The answer has motivated me through some of the most challenging and rewarding
years of my life – to do as much as I can in my own way to protect the natural world. I am
grateful for the opportunities and adventures I have had over the years as part of my PhD and
I owe thanks to many people for helping me to achieve this goal.
Firstly, I would like to sincerely thank my primary supervisor, Professor Peter Harrison for
your patience, encouragement, guidance, kind words and hard work. I’m honoured to join the
long list of students that you have supervised. To Dr Cath King, thank you for your
enthusiasm in all aspects of life, your guidance, straightforward nature and pushing me to do
my best. Dr Amanda Reichelt-Brushett, thank you for your technical advice, endless editing
and thinking outside the box. Thanks to Dr Alison Lane for your prompt, cheerful and
entertaining replies and edits, and for helping to add another dimension to my work, I hope
we can meet one day.
I am grateful to everyone at the Australian Antarctic Division for accepting me into your
ranks. Special thanks to Deb Lang and Lauren Wise for all of your patient assistance in the
lab, further thanks to Lauren and Greg Hince for your help with the complexities of
hydrocarbon chemistry. Thank you also to the aquarium staff for helping maintain my needy
animals and to the ever-helpful AAD warehouse staff. Thanks to Jane Wasley and Ashley
Cooper for patiently fielding all of my questions and helping me in many, many different
ways. To Kathryn Brown who showed me the ropes in the early days and was always willing
to answer my questions. I would also like to thank everyone who was on station with me in
Antarctica, especially those who braved the elements to assist with collections. This research
was supported by an Australian Antarctic Science grant AAS 4142 ‘Toxicity of chemically
and physically dispersed fuels on Antarctic marine biota - applicability of dispersant use for
fuel spill response planning’ awarded to Professor Peter Harrison, Dr Cath King, Professor
Simon George and Dr Alison Lane. Thank you also to the Australian Maritime Safety
Authority for providing the dispersants.
Thank you to the many friends I have made during my PhD. Thanks to Abby, Mel and
especially Jess for your friendship, humour, tea breaks, malnourishment prevention, advice
and help in the lab. It was a pleasure to share this adventure with you. To Trish, who
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repeatedly went above and beyond the call of friendship or duty (what would I have done
without you?) and to Danielle, for your superior crisis management skills and always making
me laugh. Also to all of the wonderful people that I have been lucky enough to call my friends
over many years, you have always inspired me to reach for new heights and your friendship
has brightened my world.
My biggest depth of gratitude must go to my parents, Marilyn and Christopher for helping me
to become the person that I am today and giving me the opportunities that led me to this point.
To my Mum, thank you for your endless support, encouragement and eternal confidence in
me. To my Dad, for inspiring my love of science and the natural world, even though you are
no longer with us, I know you would have supported me wholeheartedly. I hope you would
have been as proud of me as I was, and continue to be of you.
Special thanks to my partner James, for your admirable patience and understanding and for
keeping me sane. Most of all, thank you for your love and your absolute and unwavering faith
in me. You are my rock and I could not have done this without you.
And finally, thank you to life in general for somehow always putting me where I needed to
be. Given my time over, I would do it all again.
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Preface

This thesis was prepared in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy. It reports on the research undertaken in collaboration with researchers from the
School of Environment, Science, and Engineering at Southern Cross University, Lismore,
New South Wales, Australia and the Australian Antarctic Division, Kingston, Tasmania,
Australia. During this study, extensive field and laboratory work was undertaken involving
researchers and personnel from the Casey station 2013/14 summer field season and the
Australian Antarctic Division. Principal supervisor and Chief Investigator was Professor Peter
Harrison, with co-supervision from Dr Catherine King, Dr Amanda Reichelt-Brushett and Dr
Alison Lane.
This thesis is comprised of seven chapters. All data chapters have been prepared as
manuscripts for submission to journals therefore there is some unavoidable repetition of
information.
Chapter 1: Introduction provides background information regarding fuel and dispersant usage,
chemistry and toxicity as relevant to this study.
Chapter 2: Describes the methods, study sites and study species used in this work.
Chapter 3: Fuel oil and dispersant toxicity to the Antarctic sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri.
This chapter investigates the toxicity of physically and chemically dispersed intermediate fuel
oil (IFO 180) and dispersant Slickgone NS to several early life stages of a common,
circumpolar sea urchin. This manuscript has been published in Environmental Toxicology &
Chemistry (Appendix 1).
Chapter 4: Toxicological consequences of dispersant use for the management of marine fuel
oil spills to an Antarctic polychaete Ophryotrocha orensanzi. This paper investigates the
toxicity of physically dispersed IFO 180 and chemically dispersed IFO 180 using the fuel
dispersants Ardrox 6120, Slickgone LTSW and Slickgone NS to an Antarctic polychaete. The
manuscript compares management response options for a fuel spill in Antarctica based on
toxicological responses from different treatments. This manuscript has been prepared for
intended publication in Marine Pollution Bulletin.
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Chapter 5: Toxicity of fuels and dispersants to an Antarctic marine nemertean,
Antarctonemertes sp. This chapter investigates the lethal and sublethal toxicity of the water
accommodated fractions of three fuels commonly used in Antarctica: Special Antarctic Blend
(SAB) diesel, marine gas oil (MGO) and IFO 180 and three dispersants Ardrox 6120,
Slickgone LTSW and Slickgone NS to an Antarctic nemertean, Antarctonemertes sp. This
manuscript is being prepared for publication.
Chapter 6: Toxicological consequences of marine fuel spill dispersal to the common Antarctic
amphipod, Paramoera walkeri. This chapter investigates the lethal and sublethal toxicity of
the water accommodated fractions of SAB, MGO and IFO 180 and the fuel dispersants
Ardrox 6120 and Slickgone NS to the an ecologically important, circumpolar amphipod.
Further experiments compare the toxicity of physically and chemically dispersed IFO 180 and
Ardrox 6120 to adult and juvenile life stages. This manuscript is being prepared for
publication.
Chapter 7: Final discussion and thesis synthesis highlighting the main findings from this
research.
Results from this thesis have been presented at national and international conferences. In
addition, a peer-reviewed co-authored manuscript resulted from this work, redefining the
distribution, ecology and morphology of O. orensanzi (Appendix 2). An additional paper will
be published in future describing a new nemertean species, presently described as
Antarctonemertes sp. that was discovered as part of this work.

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