The Towns of Palestine Under Muslim Rule Ad 600-1600

259 Pages·2005·73.48 MB·English

by  Andrew Petersen

The Towns of Palestine
under Muslim Rule
AD 600-1600

Andrew Petersen

BAR International Series 1381
2005

SUMMARY
This book is an investigation of the towns of Palestine under Muslim rule from AD 600 to AD 1600. The primary form
of evidence is archaeological reports though historical sources are also used. Three questions are addressed: 1) Did the
towns of Palestine decline under Muslim rule? 2) Did the towns become Islamic 3) Does archaeology provide useful
answers? To answer these questions the archaeology of twenty-six towns is investigated. The towns selected are in
regional groups (the Negev, Eastern Galilee and the Mediterranean coast) to illustrate different aspects of urban
development from the Muslim conquest to the first century of Ottoman rule. The study also includes a detailed
investigation of Ramla which was founded by the Umayyads within the first century of Muslim rule. The results of the
investigation may be summarised as follows: 1) although there was a decline in the absolute numbers of towns, this
occurred over a long period and cannot be ascribed to a single cause (e.g. the advent of Islam) but was rather the result
of a number of causes which operated at different periods with varying intensity in different parts of the country. 2) the
Islamicization of the towns was a gradual process which became more obvious from the fourteenth century onwards 3)
despite large numbers of excavations there are still major gaps in our knowledge of the archaeology of many of these
towns partly because of inadequate publication and partly because the interests of excavators have often been
elsewhere.
Acknowledgements
Many people helped during the fieldwork and preparation of the thesis which formed the basis for this book. Foremost
are my supervisors Peter Edbury and Denys Pringle both of whom were always prepared to give advice and kept me
going through to the final presentation of the thesis. Both supervisors also provided me with endless references for
research funding and travel grants and above all made me feel that my research was worthwhile. I would like to thank
Professor Don Whitcomb who travelled from Chicago to be my external examiner and provided most useful comments.
I would also like to thank Cardiff University for providing me with a funded PhD studentship and the Council for
British Research in the Levant for supporting the fieldwork on which much of this research is based. Other
organisations which provided support were the Palestine Exploration Fund, the Royal Historical Society and Sheffield
University (Derrick Riley Fund for Aerial Archaeology).
None of this would have been possible without the support of my wife Heather who not only proof read the final
version of the thesis but also made sure that I finished what sometimes seemed like an impossible task. Any mistakes
which remain are of course my own responsibility.
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CONTENTS

List of Figures....................................................................................................................................................................iv

List of Plates......................................................................................................................................................................vi

List Tables.........................................................................................................................................................................vii

Preface..............................................................................................................................................................................viii

Part One

1. Urban Theory..................................................................................................................................................................1

2. Methodology.................................................................................................................................................................11

Part Two

3. Byzantine Palestine.......................................................................................................................................................19

4. Early Islamic Period......................................................................................................................................................25

5. Crusader Period.............................................................................................................................................................35

6. Ayyubid and Mamluk Period........................................................................................................................................37

7. Ottoman Period.............................................................................................................................................................41

Part Three

8. Negev Towns................................................................................................................................................................51
(Beersheba, Rehovot, Isbaita, Elusa, ‘Abda, Kurnub, ‘Auja Haffir, ‘Ayla/‘Aqaba.)

9. Towns in Eastern Galilee..............................................................................................................................................65
(Baysan, Tiberias, Sepphoris, Safed, Nazareth.)

10. Coastal Towns.............................................................................................................................................................79
(Caesarea, Tantura, Arsuf Apollonia, Jaffa, Isdud, Minat al-Qal‘a, Ascalon, Majdal, Yibna, Minat Rubin, Qaqun)

11. Ramla..........................................................................................................................................................................95

Part Four

12. Conclusion................................................................................................................................................................103

Appendix 1 – Excavation Summaries (Beersheba, Baysan, Tiberias & Ramla).............................................................115

Appendix 2 – Statistics from the Ottoman Period...........................................................................................................125

Bibliography...................................................................................................................................................................137

Figures......................................................................................................................................................................157-215

Plates........................................................................................................................................................................216-238

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LIST OF FIGURES

Pages 157-215

1. The stereotypical Muslim city of North Africa, based on work by W. Marcais (1928), G. Marcais (1945), R.
LeTourneau 1957) and J. Berque (1958) (after Alsayyad 1991, 16, Fig 2.1).
2. The stereotypical Muslim city of the Middle East, based on Sauvaget’s text (1934-41) (after Alsayyad 1991, 19, Fig
2.2).
3. Idealised Central Place System after Christaller.
4. Rainfall map of Palestine (after MacDonald 2001, 596).
5. Palestine during the Byzantine period, administrative divisions (after Watson 2001, 464).
6. Palestine: towns in the Byzantine period after A.M. Jones.
7. Early Muslim conquests after Nicolle and McBride (1993a, 4).
8. Muslim territories and principal cities c. AD 800 after Nicolle and McBride (1993a, 35).
9. Palestine: towns in the early Islamic period.
10. Palestine: towns in the early Islamic period according to Central Place theory.
11. Palestine during the tenth century, administrative divisions (after Walmsley 2001, 517).
12. Palestine in the tenth and eleventh centuries; major routes (after Walmsley 2001, 518).
13. Jerusalem in the Early Islamic period.
14. Khirbat al-Mafjar near Jericho. Site plan after recent excavations. From Palestine Antiquities Department.
15. ‘Anjar after Creswell.
16. Plan of Kufa in the Umayyad period with tribal divisions (after Djait 1986, 302).
17. Mamluk territory after Nicolle and McBride (1993b, 4).
18. Palestine: towns in the Mamluk period.
20. Palestine: towns in the Mamluk period according to Central place theory.
21. Plan of Jerusalem in the medieval period.
22. Plan of Nablus in the Mamluk period.
23. Plan of Gaza in the Mamluk period.
24. Cities of Merv from the third to fifteenth century AD.
25. Palestine: administrative districts (liwas) in the sixteenth century (after Hütteroth and Abdulfattah).
26. Palestine: cities according to Ottoman tax records.
27. Palestine: major population centres in the sixteenth century.
28. Palestine: limits of permanent settlement in the sixteenth century.
29. Negev in the early Islamic period with different types of settlement.
30. Negev with towns inhabited in Byzantine and early Islamic period with rainfall indicated in isothetes.
31. ‘Aqaba map of archaeological sites.
32. Islamic ‘Aqaba after Whitcomb.
33. Beersheba excavated archaeological sites, with Islamic remains marked in red.
34. Beersheba excavated archaeological sites, with cemeteries and graves marked in red.
35. Plan of Isbaita with churches marked red and mosque green (after Brimer 1981, 228).
36. Capitals of Galilee from the first to the fourteenth century AD.
37. Urban centres in Galilee during the early Islamic period.
38. Urban centres in Galilee during the Crusader period.
39. Urban centres in Galilee during the Mamluk period.
40. Urban centres in Galilee during the Ottoman period.
41. Baysan in the early Islamic period.
42. Baysan. Reconstruction of Umayyad market entrance with glass mosaic inscriptions (after Khamis 1997, 49).
43. Tiberias in the early Islamic period.
44. Safed; historic buildings and quarters.
45. Coast of Palestine in the tenth century with ribatat after Muqaddasi.
46. Coastal towns of Palestine under the Crusaders.
47. Coast of Palestine under the Mamluks.
48. Ascalon in the early Islamic period.
49. Majdal,; historic buildings and quarters.
50. Plan of Minat Isdud/ Minat al-Qal‘a.
51. Arsuf.
52. Caesarea in the early Islamic period. 1. Eighth century.
53. Caesarea in the early Islamic period. 2. Eleventh century.
54. Ramla archaeological excavations (1), sites with pre-12th century pottery.
55. Ramla archaeological excavations (2), sites with tombstones.
56. Ramla archaeological excavations (3), sites with vats and red pigment.
57. Ramla archaeological excavations (4), sites with pre-12th century high status buildings.
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58. Ramla archaeological excavations (5), sites with stone lined circular cisterns.
59. Ramla archaeological excavations (6), sites with evidence of pottery production.
60. Ramla archaeological excavations (7), sites with post 11th century pottery.
61. Two reconstructions of Ramla in the Early Islamic period.
62. Ramla in the Mamluk period.
63. The White Mosque Ramla. Archaeological phase plan based on Kaplan (1959), Ben Dov 1984, Burgoyne
(unpublished) and personal observation.

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LIST OF PLATES

Pages 216-238

1. Kufa; Dar al-‘Imara with Great Mosque behind.
2. ‘Anjar. View of city from North-West with cardo running diagonally across foreground.
3. Khirbat al-Mafjar near Jericho. View of palace with bathhouse in background.
4. Khirbat al-Mafjar near Jericho. Mosque.
5. Jisr Jindas between Ramla and Lydda. One of a number of bridges built by Bayars to revive the Via Maris.
6. Jisr Jindas between Ramla and Lydda. Detail of lions framing inscription.
7. Merv: Aerial view of the early city, Gyaur Kala, and its citadel Erk Kala (c.500 BC to 1100 AD). In the background
the southern part of the medieval city of Sultan Kala with mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar in to right corner.
8. Merv: mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar in the centre of Sultan Kala.
9. Nessana: acropolis with twentieth century Turkish hospital visible on summit.
10. Nessana: view of early remains from acropolis.
11. Isbaita / Shivta: view of town from north with fortified wall of North church in foreground.
12. Isbaita / Shivta: interior of North Church.
13. Isbaita / Shivta: mosque adjacent to South Church.
14. Isbaita / Shivta: One of two large reservoirs at centre of town.
15. Kh.Futais/ Photis. One of the 25 cisterns.
16. Baysan: Jami‘ al-‘Arabain. Note larger masonry at base of wall and shape of minaret (No.16 on Fig 40).
17. Baysan: Crusader citadel with earlier remains in foreground. (D. Pringle 206/27)
18. Baysan: Khan al-Ahmar to the west of the medieval town.
19. Saffuriyya: Crusader tower (re-modelled in eighteenth nineteenth and twentieth centuries) in the centre of the ruins.
Note re-use sarcophagai.
20. Jaffa. Re-used Corinthian capital in courtyard of Great Mosque (Jami‘ al-Kebir).
21. Jaffa, Sea Mosque. Note cylindrical late Ottoman minaret stands on an earlier, medieval(?), base.
22. Majdal; Jami‘ al- Kebir from west with modern market place in foreground (before 1948 market place was to east of
mosque).
23. Majdal; Jami‘ al- Kebir from east with site of pre-1948 market place in foreground.
24. Majdal; Jami‘ al- Kebir entrance to courtyard with re-used columns and capitals.
25. Majdal; Jami‘ al- Kebir inscription above entrance commemorating construction by Sayf al-Din Salar in AD 1300.
26. Minat al-Qala: Umayyad fortress from south-east (Structure A on Fig. 49).
27. Minat al-Qala: remains of bathhouse dome (Structure B on Fig. 49). Note scalloped squinches and oculus visible to
right.
28. Arsuf: west side of town with harbour in foreground and citadel on top of the cliff.
29. Arsuf: southern part of Umayyad city wall .
30. Arsuf: Haram Sidna ‘Ali. Shrine of Mamluk origin located to the south of the Crusader and early Islamic city.
31. Caesarea: Bosnian mosque (nineteenth century).
32. Yibna/ Yavne. Medieval bridge attributed to Mamluk Sultan Baybars circa AD 1270.
33. Yibna/ Yavne. Maqam (shrine) Abu Hureira built in 1274 under the orders of the Mamluk Sultan Baybars.
34. Ramla: view of city from East.
35. Ramla: White Mosque from North-West with square structure in foreground and main prayer hall behind (Creswell
Archive Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Neg. No. 5229).
36. Ramla: White Mosque with main prayer hall from minaret. Note straight joint separating 1st bay from 2nd bay to left
and right of mihrab bay (Creswell Archive Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Neg. No. C5226).
37. Ramla: White Mosque from East with minaret to left and graveyard in foreground (Creswell Archive Ashmolean
Museum, Oxford. Neg. No. 5230).
38. Ramla: White Mosque. Detail of dome above mihrab. Note gap between back wall containing mihrab and arch
above with muqarnas pendentive to support drum for dome (Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Neg.
No. 5232).
39. Ramla: al-‘Anaziyya cisterns from above (Creswell Archive Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Neg. No. C5221).
40. Ramla: al-‘Anaziyya cisterns during clearance (Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Neg. No. 5288).
41. Ramla: al-‘Anaziyya cisterns. Inscription dated Dhu’l-Hijja 172 (May 789).
42. Ramla; excavations to south-west of White Mosque during development work (No. 13 on Figs. 53-59).
43. Ramla: detail of excavations to south-west of White Mosque showing tessellated pavement.
44. Ramla. Mosaic with animals including lions, birds, and donkey. Currently in Ramla Municipal Library. Originally
from Glick’s excavations in ‘Little Holland’ (No. 18 Figs. 53-9).

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LIST OF TABLES IN TEXT

page no.

1. List of Urban sites from Byzantine to early Ottoman times......................................................................................ix-xi
2. Main towns in Mamluk Period......................................................................................................................................38
3. Main towns in early Ottoman Period............................................................................................................................42
4. Summary of Negev Towns............................................................................................................................................46
5. ‘Aqaba/Ayla Summary..................................................................................................................................................53
6. Oboda/Avdat Summary.................................................................................................................................................54
7. Beersheba Summary......................................................................................................................................................57
8. Elusa/Khalasa Summary...............................................................................................................................................58
9. Mampsis/Kurnub Summary..........................................................................................................................................59
10. Nessana/Auja Haffir Summary...................................................................................................................................59
11. Rehovot/Kh. Ruheiba Summary.................................................................................................................................62
12. Isbait/Shivta Summary................................................................................................................................................64
13. Kh. Futais/Futeis Summary.........................................................................................................................................64
14. Table 15 Galilee Rural Settlements.............................................................................................................................66
15. Baysan/Scythoplis Summary.......................................................................................................................................71
16. Nazareth Summary......................................................................................................................................................72
17. Safad Summary...........................................................................................................................................................74
18. Sepphoris/Safuriyya Summary....................................................................................................................................75
19. Tiberias/Tabariyya Summary......................................................................................................................................77
20. Arsuf/Appolonia Summary.........................................................................................................................................83
21. Ascalon Summary.......................................................................................................................................................95
22. Ashdod/Isdud Summary..............................................................................................................................................86
23. Caesarea Summary......................................................................................................................................................88
24. Jaffa Summary............................................................................................................................................................90
25. Majdal Summary.........................................................................................................................................................91
26. Minat al-Qal‘a Summary.............................................................................................................................................92
27. Minat Rubin Summary................................................................................................................................................92
28. Qaqun Summary.........................................................................................................................................................93
29. Yibna/Yavne Summary...............................................................................................................................................93
30. Size and Populations estimates of towns from Byzantine to early Ottoman times...................................................113

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PREFACE

The origin of this book was an investigation of the Part Two is divided into five chapters; the first (Chapter
archaeology and history of Ramla from its origins in the 3) includes the Byzantine era up to the Muslim conquest;
early eighth century to the end of the sixteenth century the second (Chapter 4), defined as the early Islamic
(1). However during research on this topic it became period lasts until the Crusader conquest of 1099 and
clear that little was known of the long-term development includes the Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid periods; the
of the other cities of Palestine. Whilst a considerable third (Chapter 5) lasts from the Crusader conquest of
amount of attention has focussed on the transition of 1099 until the final expulsion of the Franks from Acre in
cities from the Classical/Byzantine period to the early 1291; the fourth (Chapter 6), deals with the rule of the
Islamic period very little attention has been paid to the Ayyubids and Mamluks from the battle of Hattin in 1187
transition from the early Islamic to the medieval period. until the Ottoman conquest of 1516; the final section
Therefore it was decided that it might be better to look at (Chapter 7) discusses the first century of Ottoman rule.
Ramla within the context of long-term changes in other
Palestinian cities. There are two main questions which are Part Three is an investigation of twenty-six urban sites in
of interest over this long time span which are; 1) Did the Palestine (3). The discussion of the towns is divided into
towns of Palestine decline in their quality, size or number four chapters (Chapters 8-11) each of which highlights
during Muslim rule? and 2) To what extent did the towns different aspects of the changes which took place
of Palestine during the Muslim period differ from towns between the Byzantine and early Ottoman periods. The
of the Crusader and Byzantine periods? first chapter (Chapter 8) comprises the towns of the
Negev which apparently flourished during the Byzantine
The first question arises out of a comparison between period yet seem to have ceased to exist shortly after the
A.H.M. Jones’ (1971) list of more than forty cities in advent of Islam. The second chapter (Chapter 9)
Palestine before the Muslim conquest and the sixteenth comprises the towns of the former Byzantine province of
century Ottoman tax registers which record only six cities Palaestina II which lie to the west of the Jordan. The third
(see Table 1) (2). The second question is concerned with chapter (Chapter 10) comprises the coastal towns of
what constitutes a Muslim city and obviously has wider Palestina I and the fourth discusses Ramla. Most of the
implications beyond Palestine. information is derived from published sources
(supplemented by information from the archives of the
In order to answer these questions I have divided this Palestine Antiquities Authority) although I have visited
thesis into four parts. In Part One (Chapters 1-2) I will all the sites in the catalogue.
examine various urban concepts and how they can be
studied archaeologically. In the Part Two (Chapters 3-7) I
will look at the cities from a chronological perspective
within the wider context of Bilad al-Sham. Part Three
will adopt a regional approach looking at case studies of
twenty-six town in Palestine.
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