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Green Energy and Technology Tomislav Pavlovic Editor The Sun and Photovoltaic Technologies Green Energy and Technology Climate change, environmental impact and the limited natural resources urge scientific research and novel technical solutions. The monograph series Green Energy and Technology serves as a publishing platform for scientific and technological approaches to “green”—i.e. environmentally friendly and sustain- able—technologies. While a focus lies on energy and power supply, it also covers “green” solutions in industrial engineering and engineering design. Green Energy and Technology addresses researchers, advanced students, technical consultants as well as decision makers in industries and politics. Hence, the level of presentation spans from instructional to highly technical. **Indexed in Scopus**. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8059 Tomislav Pavlovic Editor The Sun and Photovoltaic Technologies With contributions by Tomislav Pavlovic, ć Aris Tsangrassoulis, Nikola Dj. Ceki , Plamen Ts. Tsankov, ć ć ć Dragoljub Lj. Mirjani , Ivana S. Radonji Miti 123 Editor Tomislav Pavlovic Department ofPhysics University of Niš Niš, Serbia ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic) Green Energy andTechnology ISBN978-3-030-22402-8 ISBN978-3-030-22403-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22403-5 ©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2020 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfrom therelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained hereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregard tojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Contents Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Tomislav Pavlovic Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Tomislav Pavlovic, Plamen Ts. Tsankov, Nikola Dj. Cekić and Ivana S. Radonjić Mitić Solar Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Aris Tsangrassoulis Lighting Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Plamen Ts. Tsankov Solar Energy and Lighting in Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Tomislav Pavlovic and Nikola Dj. Cekić Solar Energy and Lighting in Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Plamen Ts. Tsankov Solar Energy and Lighting in the Republic of Srpska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Tomislav Pavlovic and Dragoljub Lj. Mirjanić Index .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 413 v Solar Energy TomislavPavlovic Abstract Inthischapter information about interiorof theSun, atmosphere ofthe Sun,originof thesolarenergy, extraterrestrialandterrestrialsolarradiation,mea- surementsofsunshineduration,directsolarradiationintensityandintensityofglobal anddiffusesolarradiation,solarradiationonaninclinedsurface,propagationofsolar radiationthroughatmosphereandtheEarthrevolutionaregiven. 1 Sun Inourgalaxy,knownastheMilkyWaythereareabout400billionstarswhichinclude theSunaswell. AgeoftheSunisestimatedataboutfivebillionyears.TheSunishalfwaythrough itslifecycle,whichmeansthatinthecurrentwayitwillshineforanotherfivebillion years. Since the Earth rotates around the Sun in an elliptical orbit, its distance from the Sun is changing. Average distance of the Earth from the Sun is R = (149,597,870.5±1.6)km(Fig.1). TheSunisplasmaglaringballdiameterof2R =1.319×106 km.Thesurface S temperatureoftheSunist =5500–6000°C,meandensityisρ =1409kg/m3and s s thetotalmassisM =2×1030kg.OnthesurfaceoftheSunagravitationalfieldis s 27.9timesstrongerthanthegravitationalfieldonthesurfaceoftheEarth.Thetotal amountofenergy(luminosity)whichtheSunradiatesintothesurroundingareaina unitoftimeamountstoL =3.83×1026 J/s. s TheSunrotatesonitsaxisasanon-homogeneoussphere.PartsoftheSuncloser totheEquatorrotateathigherangularvelocityrelativetopartsoftheSun,whichare closertothepolarregions. Chemical composition of the Sun is analysed by its spectral lines. Chemical compositionoftheSunisshowninTable1. B T.Pavlovic( ) FacultyofSciencesandMathematics,UniversityofNiš,Niš,Serbia e-mail:[email protected] ©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2020 1 T.Pavlovic(ed.),TheSunandPhotovoltaicTechnologies, GreenEnergyandTechnology,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22403-5_1 2 T.Pavlovic Fig.1 StructureoftheSun [1] Table1 Chemical Element Percentageoftotal Percentageoftotal compositionoftheSun[2] atoms massoftheSun Hydrogen 92 73.4 Helium 25.0 Carbon 0.03 0.3 Nitrogen 0.008 0.1 Oxygen 0.06 0.8 Neon 0.008 0.1 Magnesium 0.002 0.05 Silicon 0.003 0.07 Sulfur 0.002 0.04 Iron 0.004 0.2 TheSunhasitsownmagneticfieldwhoseintensityandpolarityvariesdepending on time and location on its surface. Magnetic field polarity is changing in cycles whichonaveragelast22yearsasaconsequenceoftheionizedSunfluidmovement. InacalmperiodoftheSun’sactivity,magneticfieldinductionoftheSunisoccurring morerarely10−4 T. SolarEnergy 3 1.1 InterioroftheSun The Sun is composed of the interior and atmosphere. The interior of the Sun is composedofthecore,radiativeandconvectionzones(Fig.2). Duetothegravityandisotropyofthepropagationofenergyfromthecenterofthe Suntowardsthesurface,itsfeaturesaredependentonthedistancefromthecenter. Distributionoftemperature,density,massandluminosityoftheSun,dependingon thedistancefromitscenteraregiveninTable2. Fig.2 StructureoftheSun: (1)core,(2)radiativezone, (3)convectionzone,(4) photosphere,(5) chromosphere,(6)corona Table2 Distributionoftemperature,density,massandluminosityoftheSun,dependingonr/Rs [2] r/Rs t(r)(106oC) P(r)(kg/m3) M(r)/Ms L(r)/Ls 1.0 0.006 0.0001 1.000 1.00 0.9 0.50 9 0.999 1.00 0.8 1.27 35 0.996 1.00 0.7 1.80 120 0.990 1.00 0.6 2.42 400 0.970 1.00 0.5 3.42 1300 0.920 1.00 0.4 4.74 4100 0.820 1.00 0.3 6.65 13,000 0.630 0.99 0.2 9.35 36,000 0.340 0.91 0.1 12.65 85,000 0.073 0.40 0.0 14.62 134,000 0.000 0.00 4 T.Pavlovic ThecoreoftheSun‘sradiusisuptor=0.25R ,andthecoretemperatureis107°C, s andpressureisabout1015Pa.Inthecoresolarenergyisproducedinthermonuclear processofconvertinghydrogenintohelium. The energy generated in the core in the form of gamma quantas, neutrinos and energyparticles,istransmittedthroughtheradiationlayers(0.25R <r <0.85R ), s s towardsthesurfaceoftheSun,andfromthereoutintothesurroundingspace. Abovetheradiationzonethereisaconvectionzonespanningthedistanceof0.85 R < r < 1 R . In the convective zone there are atoms and negative hydrogen ions s s which are very good absorbers of solar radiation. Due to the absorption of solar radiationintheconvectivezonethereappearslargenegativegradientoftemperature andconvectiveinstability(turbulentflowofionizedgases),accordingtowhichthe layerisnamed. InmultipleinelasticcollisionsgammaquantasgeneratedinthecoreoftheSun losetheirenergy,sothatfromthesurfaceoftheSun,photonsfromtheopticalpart ofthespectrumareemitted.Duetothelong-lifeoftheexcitedstatesofatoms(105 years)andinelasticscatteringofphotonsalongtheirjourney,thephotonstravelfrom thecoretothesurfaceoftheSunabout106years[1–4]. 1.2 AtmosphereoftheSun TheatmosphereoftheSuniscomposedofthephotosphere,thechromosphereand thecorona. ThephotosphereisashinysurfaceoftheSunthicknessof~200km,whichisseen fromtheEarthwiththenakedeye.Thisstemsfromthefactthatthemeanlengthof thephotons’freepathisapproximatelyequaltothethicknessofthephotosphere,so thatphotonscandirectlycomeoutandgointothesurroundingspace.Photosphere densityis~10−4 kg/m3,theconcentrationofparticles~1023 atom/m3,andthetotal massM ~1020 kg.Bycomparison,themassofalltheoceansontheEarth(~1021 f kg)isgreaterthanthemassofthephotosphere.Thetemperatureofthephotosphere isabout5527°C.Abovethephotospherethereareotherlayersofsolaratmosphere. Inthelowerlayer—thechromosphere,thetemperatureisfallingslightly,whereby on1000kmabovethephotosphereitreachesaminimumof~3727°C.Afterthat,the temperaturerapidlyrisessothatinthetoppartofthesolaratmosphere—thecorona, insomeplacesitreaches~106°C.Fromthephotospheresolarradiationreachesthe Earthintheformofanopticalcontinuum,withdiscretespectrallinesofhydrogen, heliumandotherelements.Thelightfromthephotosphereispartiallyabsorbedinto thechromosphereandcorona,whichresultsintheappearanceofthedarkabsorption lineswhichareknownasFraunhofer lines(Fig.3). Thesurfaceofthephotosphereisnothomogeneous,itconsistsofaseriesoflight anddarkgranules,sunspotsandmanyotherphenomena(Fig.4). Granules arethepillarsofgaseseruptingfromtheconvectionzoneintophoto- sphere(brightgranules)andascooled(darkgranules)returntotheconvectivezone. Thetemperatureofthebrightgranulesisby100–200°Chigherthanthetemperature