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THE SELF-CONSCIOUS EMOTIONS THE SELF-CONSCIOUS EMOTIONS Theory and Research Edited by JESSICA L. TRACY RICHARD W. ROBINS JUNE PRICE TANGNEY Foreword by Joseph J. Campos THE GUILFORD PRESS New York London © 2007TheGuilfordPress ADivisionofGuilfordPublications,Inc. 72SpringStreet,NewYork,NY10012 www.guilford.com Allrightsreserved Nopartofthisbookmaybereproduced,translated,storedin aretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans, electronic,mechanical,photocopying,microfilming,recording, orotherwise,withoutwrittenpermissionfromthePublisher. PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica Thisbookisprintedonacid-freepaper. Lastdigitisprintnumber: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Theself-consciousemotions:theoryandresearch/editedbyJessicaL. Tracy,RichardW.Robins,JunePriceTangney;forewordbyJosephJ. Campos. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN-13:978-1-59385-486-7(hardcover:alk.paper) ISBN-10:1-59385-486-2(hardcover:alk.paper) 1. Emotions. 2. Affect(Psychology) I. Tracy,JessicaL. II. Robins, RichardW. III. Tangney,JunePrice. BF511.S34532007 152.4—dc22 2007015304 For Jill, Simona, and John About the Editors JessicaL.Tracy,PhD,isAssistantProfessorofPsychologyattheUniversityofBritishColum- bia.Herresearchfocusesontheexpression,psychologicalstructure,andcognitiveelicitorsof self-conscious emotions, as well as their links to personality and self-esteem regulation. She haspublishedarticlesintheAnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences,PsychologicalSci- ence, and Psychological Inquiry, as well as in specialized journals in personality, social, and developmental psychology, and the psychology of emotion. Her research has been funded by the National Institute of Mental Health and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research CouncilofCanada.Dr.TracyfoundedtheannualSocietyforPersonalityandSocialPsychology Pre-Conference on Emotion, and her work has been honored by the Wellcome Trust–New ScientistEssayCompetition,aswellasbydissertationawardsfromtheNewYorkAcademyof Sciences and the American Psychological Association. RichardW.Robins,PhD,isProfessorofPsychologyattheUniversityofCalifornia,Davis.His research and publications focus on personality, emotions, and the self. Dr. Robins is coeditor oftheHandbookofResearchMethodsinPersonalityPsychologyandtheforthcomingHand- book of Personality, Third Edition, and he has served as associate editor of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. His research has been funded by the National Institute of Mental Health and the National Institute on Aging. Dr. Robins was awarded the American Psychological Association’s Distinguished Scientific Award for Early Career Contribution to Psychology and the Society for Personality and Social Psychology’s Theoretical Innovation Prize. JunePriceTangney,PhD,isProfessorintheDepartmentofPsychologyatGeorgeMasonUni- versity. She is coauthor of Shame and Guilt (with Ronda L. Dearing), and coeditor of Self- ConsciousEmotions:ThePsychologyofShame,Guilt,Embarrassment,andPride(withKurt W.Fischer)andtheHandbookofSelfandIdentity(withMarkR.Leary).Shehasservedasas- sociate editor for Self and Identity, consulting editor for the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin,PsychologicalAssessment,theJournal ofSocialandClinicalPsychology,andtheJournalofPersonality,andiscurrentlyassociateed- itorofAmericanPsychologist.Dr.Tangney’sresearchonthedevelopmentandimplicationsof moralemotionshasbeenfundedbytheNationalInstituteonDrugAbuse,theNationalInsti- tute of Child Health and Human Development, the National Science Foundation, and the JohnTempletonFoundation.Currently,herworkfocusesonmoralemotionsamongincarcer- ated offenders. vi Contributors Jennifer S. Beer, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California Jennifer K. Bosson, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida Daniel Brugman, PhD, Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Sally S. Dickerson, PhD, Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California Robin S. Edelstein, PhD, Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California Jeff Elison, PhD, Department of Psychology, Southern Utah University, Cedar City, Utah Heidi L. Eyre, PhD, Department of Psychology, Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, Alabama Tamara J. Ferguson, PhD, Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah Daniel M. T. Fessler, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California Kurt W. Fischer, PhD, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts Paul Gilbert, PhD, DClinPsych, Mental Health Research Unit, Kingsway Hospital, Derby, United Kingdom Jennifer L. Goetz, BS, Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California Jamie L. Goldenberg, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida Tara L. Gruenewald, PhD, Department of Medicine—Division of Geriatrics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California Daniel Hart, EdD, Camden College of Arts and Sciences, Rutgers University, Camden, New Jersey Susan Harter, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado vii viii Contributors Dacher Keltner, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California Margaret E. Kemeny, PhD, Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California Kristin Hansen Lagattuta, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California Mark R. Leary, PhD, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina Michael Lewis, PhD, Institute for the Study of Child Development, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, New Jersey Jin Li, EdD, Department of Education, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island Brian Lickel, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California Debra J. Mashek, PhD, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, California M. Kyle Matsuba, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, British Columbia, Canada Rowland S. Miller, PhD, Department of Psychology and Philosophy, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas Erik E. Noftle, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California Jennifer L. Prewitt-Freilino, MS, Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma Tomi-Ann Roberts, PhD, Department of Psychology, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colorado Richard W. Robins, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California Thomas J. Scheff, PhD, Department of Sociology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California Toni Schmader, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona Phillip R. Shaver, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California Marija Spanovic, BA, Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California Jeffrey Stuewig, PhD, Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia June Price Tangney, PhD, Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia Ross A. Thompson, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California Jessica L. Tracy, PhD, Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Jeanne Tsai, PhD, Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California Jennifer White, BS, Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah Ying Wong, MA, Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, California Foreword T hisbookmakesanimportantcontributiontoourever-changingthoughtsaboutthena- ture of emotions. Like its predecessor, Self-Conscious Emotions: The Psychology of Shame,Guilt,Embarrassment,andPride(Tangney&Fischer,1995),thisbookreflectsa major change in the way that emotions are conceptualized. In my foreword to the previ- ous book, I noted the zeitgeist about emotion that it captured, and pointed out that re- searchontheso-called“basicemotions”ofjoy,fear,sadness,surprise,anger,anddisgust/ contempt (the “basic six”) appeared to be diminishing. In addition, both theory and re- searchinthestudyofemotionhadbeguntoemphasizethemanywaysinwhichthesame expressive response could be made in the service of several different emotions, and mor- phologicallydifferentresponsescouldreflectthesameemotion(i.e.,emotionalresponses showed equipotentiality). Furthermore, at that time, four major developments were changinghowweviewedemotions.Thefirsttwoconcernedtheoreticalinnovations:Ka- renBarrett’sfunctionalisttheoryofemotion,andFischerandMascolo’scognitivesequen- tial explanation of emotional development. New methodological advances in the measurement of the elusive concept of “self-recognition” were also making links between self-understanding and emotional development possible. Finally, an important contribution came from new observational, self-report, and narrative assessments of emotions more complex than the “basic six,” which were being developed by June Price Tangney, KarenBarrett,andNicoFrijda,amongothers.Thepreviousbookthusnotonlycaptured azeitgeistinthemaking;itlaidthefoundationforthetheoreticalandempiricaldevelop- ments that are captured in this new volume. The editors of the present volume are to be congratulated for a rarity in our time— compiling chapters that are both broad in content and important in their likely impact. The chapters as a whole nicely represent the field of emotion study, presenting to the reader much of the rich diversity that now characterizes research on the so-called “self- consciousemotions.”Theyincludecontributionsontheoretical,methodological,andem- piricalworkthatcannotreadilybefoundelsewhere,aswellasliteraturereviewsthatare priceless for the scholar. Inparticular,thebookcontainsabrilliantandprovocativetheoreticalchapteronthe appraisalcriteriathatenterintothegenerationofself-consciousemotions.Thereisalsoa chapter specifying the measurement of these emotions, which not only serves as an in- valuablerepositoryoftheadvancesmadebypioneersinthestudyofself-consciousemo- ix x Foreword tions, but also makes it possible to develop new and improved assessments of pride, shame,guilt,andothercomplexemotions.Thischapterandothersalsopresentthelimi- tations of current approaches to quantifying the more complex emotions, which should motivate a new generation of researchers to build on contemporary contributions. Thus, onbothconceptualandmethodologicalgrounds,thebooksimultaneouslysynthesizesthe field and points to its future. No editors can set a higher goal for themselves than bring- ing together a set of chapters and making them an exciting and coherent contribution to the field of study. This book also captures five major research themes that have been building in the fieldofemotionsforthepastdecade.Thefirstthemeisevolutionarypsychology.In1995, little systematic thought was devoted to the evolutionary basis of self-conscious emotions. Moreover, evolutionary arguments too often rested on prehistoric scenarios that wereplausiblebutuntestable,becausetheyhadnofossilrecordintheirsupport.Thisvol- ume takes a refreshingly different approach, rooted in anthropological, psychological, and sociological findings on shame, pride, and guilt. The chapters on evolutionary thought are clearly written, thought-provoking, and sophisticated. Asecondtheme,apowerfulforceinthecontemporarystudyofemotion,isneurosci- ence. It is unclear exactly when affective neuroscience had its beginnings. Like the Nile River, it probably had many sources. However, there is no doubt that at present the role ofthebraininemotionhasthoroughlycapturedtheimaginationofemotionresearchers. Viewsofthelinkbetweenthebrainandemotionarenolongergross(e.g.,thedichotomy inhemisphericspecializationbetweenemotionandlanguage);noraretheyextremelyspe- cific (e.g., the quest for localization of discrete emotions in “affect programs”). Rather, the brain and emotion are seen as standing in relation to each other through the orches- tration of multiple cerebral areas, working together to generate complex and flexibly manifested(notreflexive)responses.Thisvolumereflectsthisnewandcomplexapproach in affective neuroscience, through its inclusion of a well-written and cogent treatment of the brain’s role in processing social information and integrating it into adaptive emotional behavior. A third theme is the recent sharp increase in the study of culture and emotion. Ini- tially motivated by attempts to demonstrate, following Ekman’s classic studies, that a givenpatternofexpressinganemotionwasrecognizableacrossawidearrayofcultures, studiesofcultureandemotionhavedealtmorerecentlywithmattersofculturalspecific- ity. The searches for both universality and cultural specificities are reflected in this volume.Importantthemesemergeascultural-specificprocesses,includingindividualismand collectivism. In addition, several chapters address the specific ways in which cultures (e.g., Japan and the United States) use complex emotions, such as shame, for culturally desired outcomes. Although the book does not provide an extensive treatment of culture andemotionvis-à-visself-consciousemotions,itdoesprovideausefulsampleofresearch in this enormous area of study. A fourth theme is the question of whether self-conscious emotions are “good” or “bad.”Weoftenlosesightofthefactthatsomephilosophicalapproachestomoraldevel- opment place emotions, such as shame and guilt, at the center of their explanations of morality.Onthoseoccasionswhenweseealinkbetweenemotionandmorality,moreof- tenthannotweseeemotionasdisruptivetonormalmoraldevelopment.Considerthatin Freudian theory, guilt and the superego are clearly and necessarily destructive and maladaptive.The“morality”thatdevelopsfromguilt,intheclassicFreudiantradition,is rigid and neurotic. In that sense, guilt is “bad.” However, not all emotion researchers