The Sea Peoples, from Cuneiform Tablets to Carbon Dating

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by  Kaniewski D., Van Campo E., Van Lerberghe K., Boiy T., Vansteenhuyse K., et al.

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The Sea Peoples, from Cuneiform Tablets to
Carbon Dating
ARTICLE in PLOS ONE · JUNE 2011
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The Sea Peoples, from Cuneiform Tablets to Carbon
Dating
David Kaniewski1,2,3*, Elise Van Campo1,2, Karel Van Lerberghe4, Tom Boiy4, Klaas Vansteenhuyse4,
GretaJans4,KarinNys5,HarveyWeiss6,ChristopheMorhange7,ThierryOtto1,2,JoachimBretschneider4
1EcoLab(Laboratoired’EcologieFonctionnelleetEnvironnement),Universite´PaulSabatier-Toulouse3,Toulouse,France,2EcoLab(Laboratoired’EcologieFonctionnelle
etEnvironnement),CNRS,Toulouse,France,3CenterforArchaeologicalSciences,KatholiekeUniversiteitLeuven,Heverlee,Belgium,4NearEasternStudies,Faculteit
Letteren,KatholiekeUniversiteitLeuven,Leuven,Belgium,5MediterraneanArchaeologicalResearchInstitute,VrijeUniversiteitBrussel,Brussels,Belgium,6Environmental
Studies Program, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America, 7CEREGE, UMR CNRS 6635, Aix-Marseille Universite´, Universite´ de Provence,
Europoˆledel’Arbois,Aix-en-Provence,France
Abstract
The13thcenturyBCwitnessedthezenithoftheAegeanandEasternMediterraneancivilizationswhichdeclinedattheend
ofthe Bronze Age, ,3200 yearsago. Weakening ofthis ancient flourishing Mediterranean worldshifted the political and
economic centres of gravity away from the Levant towards Classical Greece and Rome, and led, in the long term, to the
emergenceofthemodernwesterncivilizations.TextualevidencefromcuneiformtabletsandEgyptianreliefsfromtheNew
Kingdomrelatethatseafaringtribes,theSeaPeoples,werethefinalcatalystthatputthefallofcitiesandstatesinmotion.
However, the lack of a stratified radiocarbon-based archaeology for the Sea People event has led to a floating historical
chronology derived from a variety of sources spanning dispersed areas. Here, we report a stratified radiocarbon-based
archaeology with anchor points in ancient epigraphic-literary sources, Hittite-Levantine-Egyptian kings and astronomical
observationstopreciselydatetheSeaPeopleevent.Byconfrontinghistoricalandscience-basedarchaeology,weestablish
an absolute age range of 1192–1190 BC for terminal destructions and cultural collapse in the northern Levant. This
radiocarbon-basedarchaeologyhasfar-reachingimplicationsforthewiderMediterranean,whereanelaboratenetworkof
international relations andcommercial activities areintertwined with thehistory of civilizations.
Citation:KaniewskiD,VanCampoE,VanLerbergheK,BoiyT,VansteenhuyseK,etal.(2011)TheSeaPeoples,fromCuneiformTabletstoCarbonDating.PLoS
ONE6(6):e20232.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020232
Editor:KarenHardy,UniversidadAutonomadeBarcelonaandUniversityofYork,Spain
ReceivedJanuary24,2011;AcceptedApril18,2011;PublishedJune8,2011
Copyright:(cid:2)2011Kaniewskietal.Thisisanopen-accessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense,whichpermits
unrestricteduse,distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedtheoriginalauthorandsourcearecredited.
Funding:ThisresearchwasfundedbythePale´omex-MISTRAL-INSU-CNRSPale´o2MEDORIANTprogram,ResearchFundKatholiekeUniversiteitLeuven(IDO
program),anditpresentsresearchresultsfromtheIAPVI/34(InteruniversityAttractionPolesProgramme-BelgianSciencePolicy).Thefundershadnorolein
studydesign,datacollectionandanalysis,decisiontopublish,orpreparationofthemanuscript.
CompetingInterests:Theauthorshavedeclaredthatnocompetinginterestsexist.
*E-mail:[email protected]
Introduction impressive glimpse of the frantic preparations which the city and
herneighbourspursued,invain,towardagainsttheinvasions[2].
Thelate13thcenturyBCwasatimeofuncertaintyandconflict ThedestructiveoperationsoftheSeaPeoplesarelaternarratedby
forpeoplesandpolitiesoftheAegeanandEasternMediterranean RamsesIIIwhoclaimsonhismortuarytemple:‘‘Nolandcouldstand
[1,2,3]. Written evidences relate a weakening of central admin- beforetheirarms:fromHatti,Qode,Carchemish,Arzawa,andAlashiyaon,
istrations [2], an erosion of political powers [4,5], and a being cut off (destroyed) at one time’’ [16]. Within the conventional
widespread food shortage [6–8] underpinned by devastating view, the Sea Peoples are linked in history to the collapse of the
drought [9,10]. This sequence of high-magnitude events led to Late Bronze Age cultures [4],and 1200 BC stands as a symbolic
the Sea People event and to the collapse of the ancient date inhuman civilization.
Mediterraneanworldaround1200BC[1,3,5].Cuneiformtablets WhereastheSeaPeopleeventconstitutesamajorturningpoint
foreshadowing the fall of the thriving coastal city Ugarit [2], and in ancient world history, attested by both written and archaeo-
reliefs from Ramses III’s mortuary temple at Medinet Habou logical (e.g. Ugarit, Enkomi, Kition, Byblos) evidence, our
depictingachaoticsceneofboatsandwarriorsentwinedinbattle knowledge of when these waves of destructions occurred rests on
intheNiledelta[11],attestthatvastmovementsofseafaringand translation of cuneiform tablets preceding the invasions (terminus
inlandtribes,theSeaPeoples[12](orLandandSeaPeoples),lieat ante quem) and on Ramses III’s reign (terminus post quem). Here, we
theheart of changesforthisperiod. report the first absolute chronology of the invasion from a rare,
The Sea Peoples were seaborne foes [13,14,15] from different well-preserved Sea People destruction layer (Fig. 2) from a
origins[6,12].Theylaunchedacombinedland-seainvasion(Fig.1) Levantine harbour town of the Ugarit kingdom. The destruction
thatdestabilizedthealreadyweakenedpowerbaseofempiresand layer contains remains of conflicts (bronze arrowheads scattered
kingdomsoftheoldworld,andattemptedtoenterorcontrolthe around the town, fallen walls, burnt houses), ash from the
Egyptianterritory[11].TheSeaPeoplessymbolizethelaststepof conflagration of houses, and chronologically well-constrained
alongandcomplexspiralofdeclineintheancientMediterranean ceramicassemblagesfragmentedbythecollapseofthetown.This
world [2,3,4,5]. Cuneiform tablets from Ugarit provide an stratified radiocarbon-based archaeology, with anchor points in
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Figure1.MapoftheSeaPeopleinvasionsintheAegeanSeaandEasternMediterraneanattheendoftheLateBronzeAge(blue
arrows).Someofthemajorcitiesimpactedbytheraidsaredenotedwithhistoricaldates.Inlandinvasionsarerepresentedbypurplearrows.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020232.g001
ancient epigraphic-literary sources, Hittite-Levantine-Egyptian
kings and astronomical observations, was used to precisely date
theSeaPeopleinvasioninnorthernLevant,adecisiveepisodeina
long-termcollapseoftheancientEasternMediterraneanworld.By
confronting historical and science-based archaeology, the data
offerthefirstfirmchronologyforthiskeyperiodinhumansociety.
The harbour town Gibala, Ugarit Kingdom
Sample collection for radiocarbon (14C) dating of the Sea
People event was performed at the harbour town Gibala
[17,18,19], a thriving Levantine trade center located at the
southernmost edge of the powerful Ugarit kingdom [20,21].
Gibala (present Tell Tweini, 35u22917.930N, 35u56912.600E;
elevation:19to27 metersabovesealevel)wasintegratedintoa
large network of long-distance trading and cultural exchanges
between the Aegean, Cyprus, the Levant, Egypt and Western
Asia. Direct access from the Mediterranean to the Syrian
heartland,Anatolia,andMesopotamiaaffordedtheportsofthe
Ugarit kingdom their wealth. This strategic position sets the
chronology obtained for the destruction of Gibala by the Sea
Peoples in a Mediterranean-wide perspective for the end of the
Late Bronze Age (Fig. 1), extending over trade routes that
crossed both land and sea. The place name Gibala appears on
two 14th century BC cuneiform tablets from Ugarit [17]. The
Figure 2. The harbour town Gibala-Tell Tweini and the Sea
writtenBronzeAgesourcesorepigraphicfindsforGibalacease
People destruction layer. The picture A is an aerial view of the
assoonasUgaritwasdestroyedbytheSeaPeoples.Gibala-Tell
easternpartoftheexcavationfieldAatGibala-TellTweini.ThepictureB
Tweini is a large multi-period site of ,12 hectares (Fig. 2), showstheSeaPeopledestructionlayerwithashes,stonerubblesfrom
which was occupied from Early Bronze Age IV (2400 BC) to fallenwalls,andceramicfragments.
Iron Age III (500 BC). During the past 11 years, large-scale doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020232.g002
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Figure3.Gibala,UgaritKingdom:bronzearrowheadsandtypicalceramicassemblagefortheendoftheLateBronzeAgeandthe
SeaPeopleeventintheAegeanandEasternMediterranean.CeramicsandarrowheadswereretrievedfromthedestructionLevel7A.The14C
weightedaveragevalueandcalibrationsprovidearobustchronologicalframeworkfortheSeaPeopleevent.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020232.g003
excavations have elucidated a thriving Bronze Age city that resulting from fights in the harbour town before its destruction,
remainedoccupiedduringtheIronAge,withonlyshortperiods andalargevarietyofMycenaean(LateHelladicIIIB),localLate
of abandonment despite a massive fire at the end of the Early Helladic IIIC Early, and Late Cypriot IIC ceramics (e.g. White
Iron Age [short-lived sample: 2845635 14C years before the slip II) highly significant for the Sea People event in the ancient
present (14C yr BP from AD 1950)] (Fig. S1) (Supporting Mediterraneanworld[17,18].Thisashlayerisnearlysynchronous
Information S1). Gibala is a rare coastal settlement, alongside with the Sea People destruction of Ugarit, and other northern
TellKazel,RasIbnHaniandRasel-Bassit,withreoccupations Levantine coastal sites such as Ras Ibn Hani, Ras el-Bassit, Tell
after the Sea People event. A stable water supply, provided by Kazel, and Tell Sukas [17]. Short-lived samples and young
the northern Rumailiah River and the southern Ain Fawar branchesfound inthedestruction debrisfromeight key loci(Fig.
spring-complex, may explain resettlements on the Gibala’s S2) were dated by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). The
alluvial plain since the Early Iron Age [10]. samplespooledinthematrix(Table1)arestatisticallythesameat
the95%confidencelevelusingaChi-square(x2)test(samplekey
Results and Discussion 7, where T=6.09,14.1). The weighted average date (2962614
14CyrBP)givesa1sigma(s)calibratedagerangeof1215–1190
About 300 years after a first conflagration (short-lived sample: BC with 34.3% relative probability and another age range of
3190640 14C yr BP) (Table 1) (Supporting Information S1), the 1180–1160 BC with 26% relative probability, using Calib-Rev.
sitewasabandonedfollowingaseveredestructionattheendofthe 6.0.1 [22] and Oxcal 4.1 [23] with IntCal09. Calibrated age
LateBronzeAge(Fig.2).Thewidespreadashlayer,termedLevel rangesindetailsat60.3%ofthe100%datingprobability(Fig.4).
7A, contained rich finds (Fig. 3) including bronze arrowheads Hence,therearetwochronologicalpossibilities forthecalibrated
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Figure4.Radiocarbondatingresultplacedinstratigraphicorderonthecalibrationcurve.ThehorizontalscaleisinhistoricalyearsBC.
TheverticalscaleisinconventionalradiocarbonyearsBP.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020232.g004
date of the destruction Level 7A, between the end of the 13th dating results (Fig. 4) indicate that Level 7A is a secured layer to
centuryandthebeginningofthe12thcenturyBCorthefirsthalf datetheSeaPeopleeventinnorthernLevant.TheLateHelladic
of the 12th century BC. By contrasting historical-archaeological IIIB-IIIC (Early) and Late Cypriot IIC-IIIA transitions respec-
and radiocarbon-based data sets, the best candidate for the tively dated in mainland Greece to 1210–1175 BC [25] and in
destruction date of the harbour town is the Sea People invasion. Cyprusto1220–1190BC[26–27],aremarkersfortheendofthe
Their presence immediately after the destruction of Gibala is palatial civilization in both the Aegean and Cyprus. All the
indicatedbythematerialcultureofthenewsettlementsontheTell Mycenaean imports ended in the region of the Ugarit kingdom
namelytheappearanceofAegean-typearchitecture,locally-made with its destruction by the Sea Peoples who interrupted trade
MycenaeanIIICEarlypottery,hand-madeburnishedpottery,and routes.NeutronactivationanalysessuggestthattheLateHelladic
Aegean-type loam-weights. These materials, also known from IIIB vessels found at Gibala until the 13th century BC originate
Philistinesettlements[24],areculturalmarkersofforeignsettlers, from the northern Peloponnese area [19]. The Late Cypriot IIC
most probably theSeaPeoples. ceramics were imported fromCyprus.
The internal consistency of the typical imported ceramic The 14C dating results of Gibala are closely matched with
assemblage found in the destruction layer (Fig. 3) and the 14C historical dates suggested by Egyptologists for the reign of the
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Table1. Detailofthe radiocarboncalibrated ages.
CalibrateddatesBCE
Code Material Species AMS14CyrBP d13C,% 1s-68% 2s-95%
Beta-281588 Charcoal Pyrussyriaca 3300640 225,4 1620-1520 1680-1500 Middle-LateBronzeAge
Level7D
Beta-281571 Charcoal Quercussp. 3290640 225 1620-1510 1670-1490
Beta-281577 Charcoal deciduousQuercus 3290640 225,4 1620-1510 1670-1490
Beta-281589 Charcoal Quercussp. 3280640 224,8 1610-1500 1650-1460
Beta-281578 Charcoal EvergreenQuercus 3240640 226,3 1530-1460 1610-1430
Beta-281573 Charcoal Cedruslibani 3240640 224,9 1530-1460 1610-1430
Beta-281584 Charredseeds Lensculinaris 3190640 223,5 1500-1420 1520-1400
Beta-281586 Charcoal deciduousQuercus 3190640 224,8 1500-1420 1520-1400
Beta-281587 Charcoal Quercussp. 3170640 226,6 1490-1410 1510-1390
Beta-281585 Charredstones Oleaeuropaea 3020640 221,2 1320-1250 1400-1130 SeaPeopleevent
DestructionLevel7A
Beta-281582 Charredstones Oleaeuropaea 3000640 221,5 1310-1200 1380-1120
Beta-281576 Charredstones Oleaeuropaea 2990640 224,3 1300-1190 1330-1120
Beta-281572 Charredstones Oleaeuropaea 2950640 225,9 1260-1120 1300-1020
Beta-281590 Charredseeds Brassicaoleracea 2950640 222,4 1260-1120 1300-1020
Beta-281591 Charredstones Oleaeuropaea 2950640 227,7 1260-1120 1300-1020
Beta-281579 Charcoal Oleaeuropaea 2930640 219,8 1210-1050 1270-1010
Beta-281570 Charredstones Oleaeuropaea 2910640 225,1 1140-1020 1260-1000
Beta-281581 Charcoal deciduousQuercus 2900640 224,2 1130-1010 1220-980 EarlyIronAge
Level6E
Beta-281574 Charcoal deciduousQuercus 2900640 226,5 1130-1010 1220-980
Beta-281568 Charcoal deciduousQuercus 2880640 223,7 1120-1000 1200-930
Poz-25443 Charcoal deciduousQuercus 2880635 Nd 1120-1010 1130-970
Beta-281583 Charcoal deciduousQuercus 2870640 225 1120-1000 1140-920
Beta-281569 Charcoal deciduousQuercus 2870640 223,8 1120-1000 1140-920
Beta-281580 Charcoal deciduousQuercus 2860640 225,9 1080-980 1130-920
Poz-25442 Charredstones Oleaeuropaea 2845635 Nd 1050-970 1120-920
Beta-281575 Charcoal deciduousQuercus 2810640 225,4 1010-910 1050-890
Poz-26396 Charcoal deciduousQuercus 2780635 Nd 980-900 1010-840
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020232.t001
PharaohMerneptah(1213–1203BC),andPharaohSiptah-Queen SeaPeopleeventinthenorthernLevant.Thisradiocarbon-based
Tawsret (1194–1186 BC) [28] (Fig. 4). The cuneiform tablets archaeological date can be refined with the astronomical
foundintheruinsofUgaritandRasIbnHani(tabletsRS17.226, observation related on the cuneiform tablet KTU 1.78 (RS
RS 18.038, RS 88.2158, RS 20.212, RS 20.238, RS 34.129, RS 12.061)foundamongtheruinsofUgarit.Thesuneclipsedepicted
19.011)areevidencefortherichcorrespondencebetweenthelast on the cuneiform tablet KTU 1.78 was dated to the 21 January
kingofUgarit(Ammurapi;firstregnalyear1215BC),thelastking 1192 BC [31], suggesting that the destruction of the city and the
of Hatti (Suppiluliuma II; first regnal year 1210 BC), the king of fall of the kingdom occurred after this observation. The date of
Carchemish (Talmi-Tesˇub; first regnal year 1220 BC), and 1192–1190 BC for the Sea People invasions in the northern
Pharaoh Merneptah [2]. These letters demonstrate that Ugarit Levant, andtheend oftheancient EasternMediterranean world
wasstillakingdomattheveryendofthe13thcenturyBCbutalso fits the radiocarbon, historical, archaeological and astronomical
relate that its territory was threatened by seaborne and land data.
invasions(Fig.1).ThecuneiformtabletRS86.2230[29],sentby OurresearchsuggeststhatthetraditionalEgyptiandateforthe
the Egyptian Bay (1194–1190 BC), the Great Chancellor of the declineoftheancientMediterraneanworld,basedonsourcesfrom
PharaohSiptah-QueenTawsret,tothelastkingofUgaritprovides Ramses III’s reign, only corresponds to the final part of a more
the final evidence of a living kingdom at the dawn of the 12th complexandlonger-termeventthatintensifiedafter1215BCwith
centuryBC.AdocumentfromEgyptrelatingtheexecutionofBay thefirstwrittenevidenceoffoodshortage[6,7,8].Accordingtothe
as a traitor in Siptah’s regnal year 5, states that the cuneiform Great HarrisPapyrus andtothescenes ofnavalandland battles
tabletRS86.2230musthavebeenwrittenbeforeanhistoricaldate depicted at Medinet Habu (Thebes, Upper Egypt), Ramses III
of 1190BC[30]. defeatedtheSeaPeoplesduringthe8thyearofhisreign[11].The
The radiocarbon results, in relation to archaeological and first regnal year of Ramses III is variously dated in the literature
historicaldata,leadustoproposeadateof1194–1190BCforthe [28,32,33], giving historical dates of 1176 BC, 1179 BC, and a
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radiocarbon-based date of 1188–1177 BC for the Sea People confidence level using a x2 test. The weighted average value was
invasions in the Nile delta. According to the 1192–1190 BC calibrated usingCalib. Rev.6.0.1[22] andOxcal4.1[23].
proposed date, the civilizations of the Aegean and Eastern
Mediterranean were devastated long before the war the Sea Supporting Information
Peoples waged againstRamses III’sarmy.
FigureS1 Gibala-TellTweini:storagejarsfoundinthe
Byacombineduseofradiocarbon,archaeologicalandhistorical
Early Iron Age destruction layer. The carbon-14 dating
data, the first firm date of 1192–1190 BC is proposed for the
resultsprovideachronological frameworkfortheEarlyIronAge
terminal destruction and disintegration of Late Bronze Age
intheNorthern Levant.
societies in the Northern Levant. The collapse caused by the
(TIF)
Sea Peoples marks a historical watershed and from these crisis
yearsaroseanewworld.Later,theGreeksnarratedandheroised FigureS2 Scanningelectronmicroscopypicturesshow-
thisperiodwiththemythsandstoriesonthefallofTroy(Homer’s ingtheSeaPeopleeventburntmacro-remainsofshort-
IliadandOdyssey).SomeoftheSeaPeoples,thePhilistines[12], lived samples (Olea europaea, Brassica oleracea) and
received a significant recognition in Biblical texts [34], and the branch (Olea europaea) with the associated calibrated
name Palestine derivesfromthese settlers. radiocarbon date. Shown are olive stones (A–D; F; H), olive
wood(G)andcabbageseed(E).Thescaleforeachmacro-remain
Materials and Methods isdenoted on thepictures.
(TIF)
Qualitycontrolonsamplecollectionfor14Cmeasurementswas
FigureS3 Calibratedcalendarageprobabilitydistribu-
undertaken during excavations. Only samples originating in
tionsforthesamplesfromtheLevels7Dand6E.The1s
reliable contexts with clear association to meaningful ceramic
(68%)and2s(95%)confidencelevelsarerespectivelyindicatedby
assemblages and occupation levels were used. Samples were
theupper andlower linesundereachdistribution.
selected from primary contexts in May 2010, with an emphasis
(TIF)
placed on short-lived samples (seeds or olive stones) (Fig.S2) and
young branches (Fig. S3). All botanical macro-remains were Supporting Information S1 Gibala-Tell Tweini: details
sampled from the Middle-Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age II oftheMiddle-LateBronzeAge(3190±4014CyrBP)and
layers and subsequently determined using optical and scanning IronAge (2845±3514Cyr BP)conflagrations.
electronmicroscopes(Fig.S2).Atotalof24securedsampleswere (DOC)
datedbyBetaAnalytic(Miami,Florida)andPoznanRadiocarbon
Laboratory(Poznan)usingstandardacceleratormassspectrometry Acknowledgments
14C. An acid/alkali/acid pretreatment was performed and the
The author would like to thank Prof. Hendrik J. Bruins and Dr. Nick
radiocarbon ages were measured. The 13C/12C ratio and the Marrinerforvaluablecommentsonanearlierdraftofthispaper.
conventionalradiocarbonagewereprovidedforeachsamplewith
two-sigma calendar calibration results. The weighted average Author Contributions
value for the fire event termed Level 7A results from multiple
Conceived and designed the experiments: DK JB. Performed the
measurements of the same ash layer from different key loci. The
experiments:DKEVCKVLTBKVGJKNTOJB.Analyzedthedata:
samples pooled in the matrix were statistically tested at a 95%
DKEVCKNHWCMJB.Wrotethepaper:DKEVCKNJB.
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