The Sea and its Living Wonders by Dr G Hartwig

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Title: The Sea and its Living Wonders
A Popular Account of the Marvels of the Deep and of the
Progress of Martime Discovery from the Earliest Ages to
the Present Time

Author: George Hartwig

Release Date: May 3, 2020 [EBook #62011]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

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ARCTIC SLEDGE-JOURNEY.

Click on image to view larger version.

THE SEA

AND

ITS LIVING WONDERS

A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF

THE MARVELS OF THE DEEP

AND OF THE

PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY

FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME

BY

DR. G. HARTWIG

AUTHOR OF "THE TROPICAL WORLD" "THE HARMONIES OF NATURE"

"THE POLAR WORLD" AND "THE SUBTERRANEAN WORLD"

SEVENTH EDITION

WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS AND PLATES

LONDON

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

AND NEW YORK: 15 EAST 16 STREET

1892

NOTICE

The right of translation into French is reserved by the Author. All necessary steps for securing the

Copyright have been taken.

PREFACE

TO

THE THIRD AND FOURTH EDITIONS.

Nothing can be more agreeable to an author anxious to merit the suffrages of the public, than the opportunity

afforded him, by a new edition, of correcting past errors or adding improvements to his work. Should any one of my
readers think it worth his while to compare 'The Sea,' such as it now is, with what it formerly was, I have no doubt he
will do me the justice to say that I have conscientiously striven to deserve his approbation.

Two new chapters—one on Marine Constructions, the other on Marine Caves—have been added; those on the

Molluscs and Cœlenterata (Jelly-fishes, Polyps) almost entirely re-written; and those on Fishes, Crustaceans,
Microscopic Animals, the Geographical Distribution of Marine Life, and the Phosphorescence of the Sea, considerably
enlarged; not to mention a number of minor improvements dispersed throughout the volume.

Great attention has also been paid to the Illustrations, many of questionable value having been omitted in the present

edition, to make room for a number of others, which will be found of great use for the better understanding of the text.

In one word, I have done my best to raise my work to the standard of the actual state of science, and to render it,

as far as my humble abilities go, a complete epitome of all that the general reader cares to know about the marvels of
the deep.

G. Hartwig.

Salon Villas, Ludwigsburg:

June 30, 1873.

PREFACE

TO

THE FIRST TWO EDITIONS.

For years my daily walks have been upon the beach, and I have learnt to love the ocean as the Swiss mountaineer

loves his native Alps, or the Highlander the heath-covered hills of Caledonia. May these feelings have imparted some
warmth to the following pages, and serve to render the reader more indulgent to their faults!

G. Hartwig.

Göttingen: July 17, 1860.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA.

CHAPTER I.

th

« v »

« vi »

« vii »

THE MAGNITUDE OF THE SEA.

Page

Extent of the Ocean.—Length of its Coast-Line.—Mural, Rocky, and Flat Coasts.—How deep is the

Sea?—Average Depth of the Atlantic Ocean.—The Telegraphic Plateau between Newfoundland
and Ireland.—Measurement of Depth by the Rapidity of the Tide-Wave.—Progressive Changes
in the Limits of the Ocean.—Alluvial Deposits.—Upheaving.—Subsidence.—Does the Level of
the Sea remain unchanged, and is it everywhere the same?—Composition and Temperature of
Sea-Water.—Its intrinsic Colour.—The Azure Grotto at Capri.—Modification of Colour owing
to Animals and Plants.—Submarine Landscapes viewed through the Clear Waters

3

CHAPTER II.

THE WAVES OF THE OCEAN.

Waves and the Mode of their Formation.—Height and Velocity of Storm-Waves, on the High Seas,

according to the Calculations of Scoresby, Arago, Sir James Ross, and Wilkes.—Their Height and
Power on Coasts.—Their Destructive Effects along the British Shore.—Dunwich.—Reculver.—
Shakspeare's Cliff.

24

CHAPTER III.

THE TIDES.

Description of the Phenomenon.—Devastation of Storm-Floods on Flat Coasts.—What did the

Ancients know of the Tides?—Their Fundamental Causes revealed by Kepler and Newton.—
Development of their Theory by La Place, Euler, and Whewell.—Vortices caused by the Tides.—
The Maelstrom.—Charybdis.—The Barre at the mouth of the Seine.—The Euripus

32

CHAPTER IV.

MARINE CAVES.

Effects of the Sea on Rocky Shores.—Fingal's Cave.—Beautiful Lines of Sir Walter Scott.—The Antro

di Nettuno.—The Cave of Hunga.—Legend of its Discovery.—Marine Fountains.—The Skerries.
—The Souffleur in Mauritius.—The Buffadero on the Mexican Coast

45

CHAPTER V.

OCEAN CURRENTS.

Causes of the Oceanic Currents.—The Equatorial Stream.—The Gulf Stream.—Its Influence on the

Climate of the West European Coasts.—The Cold Peruvian Stream.—The Japanese Stream

54

CHAPTER VI.

THE AËRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL MIGRATIONS OF THE WATERS.

Movements of the Waters through Evaporation.—Origin of Winds.—Trade-Winds.—Calms.—

Monsoons.—Typhoons.—Tornadoes.—Water-Spouts.—The Formation of Atmospherical
Precipitations.—Dew.—Its Origin.—Fog.—Clouds.—Rain.—Snow.—Hail.—Sources.—The
Quantities of Water which the Rivers pour into the Ocean.—Glaciers and their Progress.—
Icebergs.—Erratic Blocks.—Influence of Forests on the Formation and Retention of
Atmospherical Precipitations.—Consequences of their excessive Destruction.—The Power of Man
over Climate.—How has it been used as yet?

65

CHAPTER VII.

« viii »

MARINE CONSTRUCTIONS.

Lighthouses.—The Eddystone.—Winstanley's Lighthouse, 1696.—The Storm of 1703.—Rudyerd's

Lighthouse destroyed by Fire in 1755.—Singular Death of one of the Lighthouse Men.—Anecdote
of Louis XIV.—Smeaton.—Bell Rock Lighthouse.—History of the Erection of Skerryvore
Lighthouse.—Illumination of Lighthouses.—The Breakwater at Cherbourg.—Liverpool Docks.—
The Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits.—The Sub-oceanic Mine of Botallack.

80

PART II.

THE INHABITANTS OF THE SEA.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE CETACEANS.

General Remarks on the Organisation of the Cetaceans.—The Large Greenland Whale.—His Food and

Enemies.—The Fin-Back or Rorqual.—The Antarctic Whale.—The Sperm-Whale.—The Unicorn
Fish.—The Dolphin.—Truth and Fable.—The Porpoise.—The Grampus.—History of the Whale
Fishery

95

CHAPTER IX.

SEALS AND WALRUSES.

The Manatees and the Dugongs.—The Seals and the Esquimaux.—King Menelaus in a Seal's Skin.—

Barbarous Persecutions of the Seals in Behring's Sea and the Pacific.—Adventures of a Sealer
from Geneva.—The Sea Calf.—The Sea Bear.—His Parental Affection.—The Sea Lions.—The
Sea Elephant.—The Arctic Walrus.—The Boats of the "Trent" fighting with a Herd of Walruses.
—The White Bear.—Touching Example of its Love for its Young.—Chase of the Sea Otter

117

CHAPTER X.

SEA-BIRDS.

Their Vast Numbers.—Strand-Birds.—Artifices of the Sea-Lark to protect its Young.—Migrations of

the Strand-Birds.—The Sea-Birds in General.—The Anatidæ.—The Eider Duck.—The
Sheldrake.—The Loggerheaded Duck.—Auks and Penguins.—The Cormorant.—Its Use by the
Chinese for Fish-catching.—The Frigate Bird.—The Soland Goose.—The Gulls.—The Petrels.
—The Albatross.—Bird-catching on St. Kilda.—The Guano of the Chincha Islands

142

CHAPTER XI.

THE REPTILES OF THE OCEAN.

The Saurians of the Past Seas.—The Anatomical Structure of the Turtles.—Their Size.—Their Visits to

the Shores.—The Dangers that await their Young.—Turtles on the Brazilian Coast.—Prince
Maximilian of Neuwied and the Turtle.—Conflicts of the Turtles with Wild Dogs and Tigers on
the Coast of Java.—Turtle-catching on Ascension Island.—Tortoise-shell.—The Amblyrhynchus
cristatus.—Marine Snakes.—The Great Sea-Snake

172

CHAPTER XII.

THE MARINE FISHES.

« ix »

General Observations on Fishes.—Their Locomotive Organs.—Tail.—Fins.—Classification of Fishes

by Cuvier.—Air-Bladder.—Scales.—Beauty of the Tropical Fishes.—The Gills.—Terrestrial
Voyages of the Anabas and the Hassar.—Examples of Parental Affection.—Organs of Sense.—
Offensive Weapons of Fishes.—The Sea-Wolf.—The Shark.—The Saw-Fish.—The Sword-
Fish.—The Torpedo.—The Star-Gazer.—The Angler.—The Chætodon Rostratus.—The
Remora, used for catching Turtles.—Defensive Weapons of Fishes.—The Weever.—The
Stickleback.—The Sun-Fish.—The Flying-Fish.—The numerous Enemies of the Fishes.—
Importance and History of the Herring Fishery.—The Pilchard.—The Sprat.—The Anchovy.—
The Cod.—The Sturgeons.—The Salmon.—The Tunny.—The Mackerel Family.—The Eel.—
The Murey.—The Conger.—The Sand-Launce.—The Plectognaths.—The Sea-Horse.—The
Pipe-Fish.—The Flat-Fishes.—The Rays.—The Fecundity of Fishes

186

CHAPTER XIII.

CRUSTACEA.

CRABS—LOBSTERS.

How are they distinguished from the Insects?—Barnacles and Acorn-shells.—Siphonostomata.—

Entomostraca.—King-Crab.—Edriophthalmia.—Sandhoppers.—Thoracostraca.—Compound
Eye of the higher Crustaceans.—Respiratory Apparatus of the Decapods.—Digestive Organs.—
Chelæ or Pincers.—Distribution of Crabs.—Land Crabs.—The Calling Crab.—Modifications of
the Legs in different species.—The Pinna and Pinnotheres.—Hermit Crabs.—The Lobster.—The
Cocoa-nut Crab.—The Shrimp.—Moulting Process.—Metamorphoses of Crabs.—Victims and
Enemies of the Crustaceans.—Their Fecundity.—Marine Spiders and Insects

243

CHAPTER XIV.

MARINE ANNELIDES.

The Annelides in general.—The Eunice sanguinea.—Beauty of the Marine Annelides.—The Giant

Nemertes.—The Food and Enemies of the Annelides.—The Tubicole Annelides.—The Rotifera.
—Their Wonderful Organisation.—The Synchæta Baltica

262

CHAPTER XV.

MOLLUSCS.

The Molluscs in general.—The Cephalopods.—Dibranchiates and Tetrabranchiates—Arms and

Tentacles.—Suckers.—Hooked Acetabula of the Onychoteuthis.—Mandibles.—Ink Bag.—
Numbers of the Cephalopods.—Their Habits.—Their Enemies.—Their Use to Man.—Their
Eggs.—Enormous size of several species.—The fabulous Kraken.—The Argonaut.—The Nautili.
—The Cephalopods of the Primitive Ocean.—The Gasteropods.—Their Subdivisions.—Gills of
the Nudibranchiates.—The Pleurobranchus plumula.—The Sea-Hare.—The Chitons.—The
Patellæ.—The Haliotis or Sea-Ear.—The Carinariæ.—The Pectinibranchiates.—Variety and
Beauty of their Shells.—Their Mode of Locomotion.—Foot of the Tornatella and Cyelostoma.—
The Ianthinæ.—Sedentary Gasteropods.—The Magilus.—Proboscis of the Whelk.—Tongue of
the Limpet.—Stomach of the Bulla, the Scyllæa, and the Sea-Hare.—Organs of Sense in the
Gasteropods.—Their Caution.—Their Enemies.—Their Defences.—Their Use to Man.—Shell-
Cameos.—The Pteropods.—Their Organisation and Mode of Life.—The Butterflies of the
Ocean.—The Lamellibranchiate Acephala.—Their Organisation.—Siphons.—The Pholades.—
Foot of the Lamellibranchiates.—The Razor-Shells.—The Byssus of the Pinnæ.—Defences of the
Bivalves.—Their Enemies.—The common Mussel.—Mussel Gardens.—The Oyster.—Oyster
Parks.—Oyster Rearing in the Lago di Fusaro.—Formation of new Oyster Banks.—Pearl-fishing
in Ceylon.—How are Pearls formed?—The Tridacna gigas.—The Teredo navalis.—The
Brachiopods.—The Terebratulæ.—The Polyzoa.—The Sea-Mats.—The Escharæ.—The
Lepraliæ.—Bird's Head Processes.—The Tunicata.—The Sea-Squirts.—The Chelyosoma.—
The Botrylli.—The Pyrosomes.—The Salpæ.—Interesting Points in the Organisation of the
Tunicata

270

« x »

« xi »

CHAPTER XVI.

ECHINODERMATA.

STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, AND SEA-CUCUMBERS.

The Star-Fishes.—Their Feet or Suckers.—Voracity of the Asterias.—The Rosy Feather-Star.—

Brittle and Sand-Stars.—The real Sea-Stars of the British Waters.—The Sea-Urchins.—The
Pedicellariæ.—The Shell and the Dental Apparatus of the Sea-Urchins.—The Sea-Cucumbers.
—Their strange Dismemberments.—Trepang-fishing on the Coast of North Australia.—In the
Feejee
Islands

328

CHAPTER XVII.

CŒLENTERATA.

POLYPS AND JELLY-FISHES.

Thread-cells or Urticating Organs.—Sertulariæ.—Campanulariadæ.—Hydrozoic Acalephæ.—

Medusidæ.—Lucernariadæ.—Calycophoridæ.—The Velella.—The Portuguese Man-of-war.—
Anecdote of a Prussian Sailor.—Alternating Fixed and Free-swimming Generations of Hydrozoa.
—Actinozoa.—Ctenophora.—Their Beautiful Construction.—Sea-anemones.—Dead Man's
Toes.—Sea-pens.—Sea-rods.—Red Coral.—Coral Fishery.—Isis hippuris.—Tropical
Lithophytes.—History of the Coral Islands.—Darwin's Theory of their Formation.—The progress
of their Growth above the level of the Sea

345

CHAPTER XVIII.

PROTOZOA.

The Foraminifera.—The Amœbæ.—Their Wonderful Simplicity of Structure.—The Polycystina.—

Marine Infusoria.—Sponges.—Their Pores.—Fibres and Spiculæ.—The Common Sponge of
Commerce

378

CHAPTER XIX.

MARINE PLANTS.

The Algæ.—Zostera marina.—The Ulvæ and Enteromorphæ.—The Fuci.—The Laminariæ.—

Macrocystis pyrifera.—Description of the Submarine Thickets at Tierra del Fuego.—Nereocystis
lutkeana.—The Sargasso Sea.—The Gathering of edible Birds'-nests in the marine Caves of Java.
—Agar-Agar.—The Florideæ.—The Diatomaceæ.—Their importance in the economy of the
Seas

390

CHAPTER XX.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE LIFE.

The Dependence of all created Beings upon Space and Time.—The Influences which regulate the

Distribution of Marine Life.—The four Bathymetrical Zones of Marine Life on the British Coasts,
according to the late Professor Edward Forbes of Edinburgh.—Abyssal Animals.—Bathybius
Haeckelii.—Deep-Sea Sponges and Shell-Fish.—Vivid Phosphorescence of Deep-Sea Animals.
—Deep-Sea Shark Fishery—The "Challenger."

405

CHAPTER XXI.

« xii »

THE PHOSPHORESCENCE OF THE SEA.

Its Causes.—Noctiluca miliaris.—Phosphorescent Annelides and Beroës.—Intense Phosphorescence

of the Pyrosoma atlantica.—Luminous Pholades.—The luminous Shark.—Phosphorescent Algæ.
—Citations from Byron, Coleridge, Crabbe, and Scott.

423

CHAPTER XXII.

THE PRIMITIVE OCEAN.

The Giant-Book of the Earth-rind.—The Sea of Fire.—Formation of a solid Earth-crust by cooling.—

The Primitive Waters.—First awakening of Life in the Bosom of the Ocean.—The Reign of the
Saurians.—The future Ocean.

433

PART III.

THE PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY.

CHAPTER XXIII.

Maritime Discoveries of the Phœnicians.—Expedition of Hanno.—Circumnavigation of Africa under

the Pharaoh Necho.—Colæus of Samos.—Pytheas of Massilia.—Expedition of Nearchus.—
Circumnavigation of Hindostan under the Ptolemies.—Voyages of Discovery of the Romans.—
Consequences of the Fall of the Roman Empire.—Amalfi.—Pisa.—Venice.—Genoa.—
Resumption of Maritime Intercourse between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.—Discovery of
the Mariner's Compass.—Marco Polo

443

CHAPTER XXIV.

Prince Henry of Portugal.—Discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira.—Doubling of Cape Bojador.—

Discovery of the Cape Verde Islands.—Bartholomew Diaz.—Vasco de Gama.—Columbus.—
His Predecessors.—Discovery of Greenland by Günnbjorn.—Bjorne Herjulfson.—Leif.—John
Vaz Cortereal.—John and Sebastian Cabot.—Retrospective View of the Beginnings of English
Navigation.—Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci.—Vincent Yañez Pinson.—Cortez.—Verazzani.—
Cartier.—The Portuguese in the Indian Ocean

454

CHAPTER XXV.

Vasco Nuñez de Balboa.—His Discovery of the Pacific, and subsequent Fate.—Ferdinand Magellan.

—Sebastian el Cano, the first Circumnavigator of the Globe.—Discoveries of Pizarro and Cortez.
—Urdaneta.—Juan Fernandez.—Mendoza.—Drake.—Discoveries of the Portuguese and Dutch
in the Western Pacific.—Attempts of the Dutch and English to discover North-East and North-
West Passages to India.—Sir Hugh Willoughby and Chancellor.—Frobisher.—Davis.—Barentz.
—His Wintering in Nova Zembla.—Quiros.—Torres.—Schouten.—Le Maire.—Abel Tasman.
—Hudson.—Baffin.—Dampier.—Anson.—Byron.—Wallis and Carteret.—Bougainville

464

CHAPTER XXVI.

What had Cook's Predecessors left him to discover?—His first Voyage.—Discovery of the Society

Islands, and of the East Coast of New Holland.—His second Voyage.—Discovery of the Hervey
Group.—Researches in the South Sea.—The New Hebrides.—Discovery of New Caledonia and
of South Georgia.—His third Voyage.—The Sandwich Islands.—New Albion.—West Georgia.
—Cook's Murder.—Vancouver.—La Peyrouse

485

CHAPTER XXVII.

« xiii »

Scoresby.—The Arctic Navigators.—Ross.—Parry.—Sufferings of Franklin and his Companions on

his Overland Expedition in 1821.—Parry's Sledge-journey to the North Pole.—Sir John Franklin.
—M'Clure.—Kane.—M'Clintock.—South Polar Expeditions.—Bellinghausen.—Weddell.—
Biscoe.—Balleny.—Dumont d'Urville.—Wilkes.—Sir James Ross.—Recent Scientific Voyages
of Circumnavigation

496

DESCRIPTION OF THE FRONTISPIECE.

ARCTIC SLEDGE-JOURNEY.

The sledge plays a very conspicuous part in the history of arctic discovery, as it enables the bold

investigators of the icy wildernesses of the North to penetrate to many places, impervious to
navigation, to establish dépôts of provisions for future emergencies, or even becomes the means of
saving their lives when their ship has been lost or hopelessly blocked up. Whenever dogs can be
had, these useful animals are made use of for the transport. Our plate represents one of these
sledging parties threading its way through blocks of ice, and gives a good idea of the difficulties
they have to encounter.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

Arctic Sledge-Journey
Frontispiece.

FACING PAGE

The Souffleur Rock, Mauritius
52

Lighthouse and Waterspout
65

Australian Sea-Bears
117

The Boats of H.M.S. "Trent" attacked by Walruses
131

Penguins
142

Subaqueous Life—Sticklebacks and Nest
195

Russian Official collecting Algæ
392

MAP.

Map of the Globe, showing the direction of the Ocean Currents, Cotidal Lines, &c. facing page 3.

WOODCUTS.

Annelidans:—

Aphrodita, or Sea-Mouse,
264

Nereis,
263

Serpula, attached to a Shell,
266

Beachy Head,
5

Bell Rock Lighthouse,
86

Birds:—

Albatross, Wandering,
163

Auk,
168

Great,
151

Avoset,
144

Barnacle Goose,
146

Cormorant, common,
155

Curlew,
143

Eider Duck,
146

Flamingo,
142

Gannet, common,
156

Great Crested Grebe,
150

Guillemot, Black,
165

(winter plumage),
167

Herring Gulls,
158

« xiv »
« xv »

« xvi »
« xvii »

Hooded Merganser,
404

Pelican,
116, 154

Penguins,
152

Petrel, Broad-billed,
160

Fork-tailed,
160

Stormy,
162

Plover,
144

Puffins,
165, 167

Red-breasted Merganser,
149

Scissor-bill (Rhynchops nigra),
144

Sheldrake,
148

Skimmer, Black,
144

Snow Goose,
146

Speckled Diver,
145

Tailor-bird,
143

Birds of Passage,
171

Bones of the Anterior Fin of a Whale,
96

Cœlenterata:—

Alcyonidium elegans,
363

Astræa,
373

Caryophyllia,
370

Chrysaora hysoscella,
357

Coryniadæ,
358

Ctenophora,
360

Diphyes appendiculata,
353

Grey Sea-Pen,
365

Isis hippuris,
369

Jelly Fishes,
349, 350, 351

Lucernalia auricula,
352

Medusæ,
349, 350, 351

Physalia caravella,
355

Physophora Philippii,
356

Red Coral,
367

Sertularia tricuspidata,
347

Stone Corals,
373, 374

Tubipora Musica,
370

Velella,
354

Virgularia mirabilis,
365

Vogtia pentacantha,
353

Compound Foraminiferous Protozoon, magnified,
380

Crustaceans:—

American Sand-Crab,
252

Balanus ovularis, and group of, 2
244

Barnacle,
101, 244

Calling-Crab of Ceylon,
251

Chelura tenebrans,
247

Diogenes Hermit-Crab,
254

Dromia vulgaris,
249

Jamaica Land-Crab,
250

King Crab,
246

Large-clawed Calling-Crab,
250

Limnoria lignorum,
247

Metamorphosis of Carcinus Mœnas,
258

Pea-Crab,
253

Phyllosoma,
258

Pinna Augustana,
253

Sandhopper,
246

Seyllarus equinoxialis,
248

square facets of,
247

« xviii »

Spotted Fin-Crab,
252

Spotted Mantis-Crab,
256

Stenopus hispidus,
261

Whale-Louse,
101

Crustaceans and Oysters,
256

Dental Apparatus of the Sea-Urchin, viewed from above,
339

Ear, Human,
196

Ear of the Perch,
196

Echinodermata:—

Cross-Fish, common,
334

Eatable Trepang,
340

Goniaster,
336

Lily-Encrinite,
330

Sand-Star,
332

Sea-Urchin,
337

Edible,
338

Mammillated,
338

Warted Euryale,
333

Eddystone Lighthouse,
84

Esquimaux in his Kayak,
120

Fingal's Cave,
47

Fishes:—

Ammodyte, or Launce,
230

Anabas of the dry tanks,
192

Anchovy,
214

Angler,
203

Bonito,
223

Cod,
215

Conger Eel,
228

Diodon,
205

Dory,
242

Electric Eel,
202

European Sly,
203

Fierasfer,
340

File-Fish,
232

Flounder,
238

Flying Fish,
156, 206, 224

Frog-Fish,
192

Gar-Fish,
223

Globe-Fish,
232

Gurnard,
197, 414

Haddock,
215

Halibut,
236

Herring,
101, 208

Lamprey,
231

Ling,
215

Mackerel,
222

Mullet, Grey,
415

Red,
197, 415

Myxine,
231

Perch, internal ear of the,
196

Picked Dog-Fish,
200

Pilchard,
212

Pilot-Fish,
225

Plaice,
238

Porcupine-Fish,
232

Salmo Rossii,
220

Salmon,
415

« xix »

Sand-Eel,
415

Saw-Fish,
201

Sea-Horse,
234, 344

Shark, Blue,
200

Hammer-headed,
199

White,
198

Short Sun-Fish,
232, 422

Sole,
237

portion of skin of, highly magnified,
190

Sturgeon, common,
217

Surgeon-Fish,
205

Swimming Pegasus,
207

Sword-Fish,
99, 201

Thornback,
240

Torpedo,
201

Toxotes Jaculator,
203

Trunk-Fish,
232

Tunny,
221

Turbot,
237

Wolf-Fish,
197

Foraminifera, various forms of,
381

Fossils:—

Ammonite,
437

Belemnite,
437

Ichthyosaurus communis,
172, 438

Pentacrinus Briareus, portion of,
330

Plesiosaurus,
438

Trilobite,
436

Hill at the Rapid on Bear Lake River (North-West Territory, North America),
23

H.M.S. "Resolute" lying to in the North Atlantic,
24

Ice-Bear approaching the "Dorothea" and "Trent",
137

Japan Junks,
63

Licmophora flabellata,
403

Mammals:—

Dolphin,
107

Dugong,
117

female, of Ceylon,
119

Manatee,
117

Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus),
134

Porpoise,
108

Rorqual,
101

Sea-Otter,
140

Seal,
119, 123, 135

Greenland,
123

Walrus, 129,
135

Whale, common,
97

Whale, Spermaceti,
102, 115

Mollusks:—

Argonaut,
280

Ascidia mammillata,
322

Banded Dipper,
141

Bivalve deprived of its shell, to show its various openings,
300

Botryllus,
324

Bulla,
294

Calamary,
272

Carinaria,
287

Cellularia,
319

Chelyosoma Macleayanum,
323, 327

Chinese Wentle-trap (Scalaria pretiosa),
289

Chiton squamosus,
285

Clavellina producta,
322

Clio borealis,
98

Cockle, common,
303, 306

Cuttle-Fish (Sepia),
104, 275

Diazona violacea,
324

Donax,
301

Edible Mussel,
307

Edible Oyster,
308

Eolis,
284

Eschara cervicornis,
318

Gorgeous Doris,
235

Haliotis,
287

Harp-shell,
288

Hippopus maculatus,
315

Ianthina communis,
290

Leaf-like Sea-mat,
316, 317

Limpet and Shell,
286, 292, 411

Magilus antiquus,
291

Mitre-shells,
288

Murex haustellum,
291, 296

Oliva hispidula,
290

Onychoteuthis,
274

Orange Cone-shell,
288

Pearl-Oyster,
312

Pearly Nautilus,
280

Periwinkle,
411

Petunculus,
302

Pholas striata,
302

Pinna,
305

Poulp (Octopus),
272, 273

Pteroceras scorpio,
290

Retepora cellularis,
318

Salpa,
326

Scyllæa,
283

Sea-Hare, compound stomach of,
295

Sepia,
104, 275

Solen, or Razor-Shell,
304

Strombus pes pelicani,
290

Syllæa, gizzard of,
294

Tiara,
283

Tridacna gigas,
314

Whelk,
413

Worm-shell,
291

Muscles and Electric Batteries of the Torpedo,
202

Nervous Axis of an Annelidan,
262

Noctiluca miliaris,
425

Ova of the Cuttle-Fish,
278

Protozoa:—

Amœba,
379

Foraminifera,
381

Halina papillaris,
386

Infusoria, marine,
384

Nummulina discoidalis,
378

Polycistina,
383

Sponges,
385

Tethea,
385, 386

Reptiles:—

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Alligator Lucius,
173

Tortoise,
174

Turtle, Green,
170

Hawk's Bill,
180

Loggerhead,
176

Water-Snake,
183

Rocky Mountains at the bend of the Bear Lake River,
79

Rotifera:—

Conochilus volvox,
268

Philodina roseola,
269

Ptygura melicerta,
267

Saw of the Saw-Fish,
100

Sea-Fowl Shooting,
168

Skeleton of the Dugong,
118

of the Perch,
188

of the Seal,
119

of the Tortoise,
174

Skerryvore Lighthouse,
89

Skull and Head of Walrus,
129

Skull of Whale, with the Baleen,
98

Sockets with teeth, of Echinus esculentus,
339

Surirella constricta,
402

Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Fishes,
192

Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Mammals and Birds,
175

Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Reptiles,
175

Torso Rock, near Point Deas Thomson, in the Arctic Ocean,
9

Urticating organs of Cœlenterata,
346

Water-Sports,
69, 70

PART I.

THE

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA.

Click on image to view larger version.

CHAPTER I.

THE MAGNITUDE OF THE SEA.

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>Extent of the Ocean.—Length of its Coast-Line.—Mural, Rocky, and Flat Coasts.—How deep is the

Sea?—Average Depth of the Atlantic Ocean.—The Telegraphic Plateau between Newfoundland
and Ireland.—Measurement of Depth by the Rapidity of the Tide-Wave.—Progressive Changes
in the Limits of the Ocean.—Alluvial Deposits.—Upheaving.—Subsidence.—Does the Level of
the Sea remain unchanged, and is it everywhere the same?—Composition and Temperature of
Sea-Water.—Its intrinsic Colour.—The Azure Grotto at Capri.—Modification of Colour owing
to Animals and Plants.—Submarine Landscapes viewed through the Clear Waters.

Of all the gods that divide the empire of the earth, Neptune rules over the widest realms. If a giant-hand were to

uproot the Andes and cast them into the sea, they would be engulphed in the abyss, and scarcely raise the general level
of the waters.

The South American Pampas, bounded on the north by tropical palm-trees, and on the south by wintry firs, are no

doubt of magnificent dimensions, yet these vast deserts seem insignificant when compared with the boundless plains of
earth-encircling ocean. Nay! a whole continent, even America or Asia, appears small against the immensity of the sea,
which covers with its rolling waves nearly three-fourths of the entire surface of the globe.

A single glance over the map shows us at once how very unequally water and land are distributed. In one part we

see continents and islands closely grouped together, while in another the sea widely spreads in one unbroken plain; here
vast peninsulas stretch far away into the domains of ocean, while there immense gulfs plunge deeply into the bosom of
the land. At first sight it might appear as if blind chance had presided over this distribution, but a nearer view convinces
us that providential laws have established the existing relations between the solid and fluid surfaces of the earth. If the
sea had been much smaller, or if the greatest mass of land had been concentrated in the tropical zone, all the
meteorological phenomena on which the existence of actual organic life depends would have been so different, that it is
doubtful whether man could then have existed, and certain that, under those altered circumstances, he never would
have attained his present state of civilisation. The dependence of our intellectual development upon the existing
configuration of the earth, convinces us that Divine wisdom and not chaotic anarchy has from all eternity presided over
the destinies of our planet.

The length of all the coasts which form the boundary between sea and land can only be roughly estimated, for who

has accurately measured the numberless windings of so many shores? The entire coast line of deeply indented Europe
and her larger isles measures about 21,600 miles, equal to the circumference of the earth; while the shores of compact
Africa extend to a length of only 14,000 miles. I need hardly point out how greatly Europe's irregular outlines have
contributed to the early development of her superior civilisation and political predominance. The coasts of America
measure about 45,000 miles, those of Asia 40,000, while those of Australia and Polynesia may safely be estimated at
16,000. Thus the entire coast-line of the globe amounts to about 136,000 miles, which it would take the best pedestrian
full twenty-five years to traverse from end to end.

How different is the aspect of these shores along which the ever-restless sea continually rises or falls! Here steep

rock-walls tower up from the deep, while there a low sandy beach extends its flat profile as far as the eye can reach.
While some coasts are scorched by the vertical sunbeam, others are perpetually blocked up with ice. Here the safe
harbour bids welcome to the weather-beaten sailor, the lighthouse greets him from afar with friendly ray; the
experienced pilot hastens to guide him to the port, and all along the smiling margin of the land rise the peaceful dwellings
of civilised man. There, on the contrary, the roaring breakers burst upon the shore of some dreary wilderness, the
domain of the savage or the brute. What a wonderful variety of scenes unrolls itself before our fancy as it roams along
the coasts of ocean from zone to zone! what changes, as it wanders from the palm-girt coral island of the tropical seas
to the melancholy strands where, verging towards the poles, all vegetable life expires! and how magnificently grand does
the idea of ocean swell out in our imagination, when we consider that its various shores witness at one and the same
time the rising and the setting of the sun, the darkness of night and the full blaze of day, the rigour of winter and the
smiling cheerfulness of spring!

Beachy Head.

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