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Project Gutenberg's The Sea and its Living Wonders, by George Hartwig This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: The Sea and its Living Wonders A Popular Account of the Marvels of the Deep and of the Progress of Martime Discovery from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time Author: George Hartwig Release Date: May 3, 2020 [EBook #62011] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEA AND ITS LIVING WONDERS *** Produced by Chris Curnow, Sharon Joiner, Tom Cosmas and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) cover ARCTIC SLEDGE-JOURNEY. Click on image to view larger version. THE SEA AND ITS LIVING WONDERS A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE MARVELS OF THE DEEP AND OF THE PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME BY DR. G. HARTWIG AUTHOR OF "THE TROPICAL WORLD" "THE HARMONIES OF NATURE" "THE POLAR WORLD" AND "THE SUBTERRANEAN WORLD" SEVENTH EDITION WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS AND PLATES LONDON LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. AND NEW YORK: 15 EAST 16 STREET 1892 NOTICE The right of translation into French is reserved by the Author. All necessary steps for securing the Copyright have been taken. PREFACE TO THE THIRD AND FOURTH EDITIONS. Nothing can be more agreeable to an author anxious to merit the suffrages of the public, than the opportunity afforded him, by a new edition, of correcting past errors or adding improvements to his work. Should any one of my readers think it worth his while to compare 'The Sea,' such as it now is, with what it formerly was, I have no doubt he will do me the justice to say that I have conscientiously striven to deserve his approbation. Two new chapters—one on Marine Constructions, the other on Marine Caves—have been added; those on the Molluscs and Cœlenterata (Jelly-fishes, Polyps) almost entirely re-written; and those on Fishes, Crustaceans, Microscopic Animals, the Geographical Distribution of Marine Life, and the Phosphorescence of the Sea, considerably enlarged; not to mention a number of minor improvements dispersed throughout the volume. Great attention has also been paid to the Illustrations, many of questionable value having been omitted in the present edition, to make room for a number of others, which will be found of great use for the better understanding of the text. In one word, I have done my best to raise my work to the standard of the actual state of science, and to render it, as far as my humble abilities go, a complete epitome of all that the general reader cares to know about the marvels of the deep. G. Hartwig. Salon Villas, Ludwigsburg: June 30, 1873. PREFACE TO THE FIRST TWO EDITIONS. For years my daily walks have been upon the beach, and I have learnt to love the ocean as the Swiss mountaineer loves his native Alps, or the Highlander the heath-covered hills of Caledonia. May these feelings have imparted some warmth to the following pages, and serve to render the reader more indulgent to their faults! G. Hartwig. Göttingen: July 17, 1860. CONTENTS. PART I. THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. CHAPTER I. th « v » « vi » « vii » THE MAGNITUDE OF THE SEA. Page Extent of the Ocean.—Length of its Coast-Line.—Mural, Rocky, and Flat Coasts.—How deep is the Sea?—Average Depth of the Atlantic Ocean.—The Telegraphic Plateau between Newfoundland and Ireland.—Measurement of Depth by the Rapidity of the Tide-Wave.—Progressive Changes in the Limits of the Ocean.—Alluvial Deposits.—Upheaving.—Subsidence.—Does the Level of the Sea remain unchanged, and is it everywhere the same?—Composition and Temperature of Sea-Water.—Its intrinsic Colour.—The Azure Grotto at Capri.—Modification of Colour owing to Animals and Plants.—Submarine Landscapes viewed through the Clear Waters 3 CHAPTER II. THE WAVES OF THE OCEAN. Waves and the Mode of their Formation.—Height and Velocity of Storm-Waves, on the High Seas, according to the Calculations of Scoresby, Arago, Sir James Ross, and Wilkes.—Their Height and Power on Coasts.—Their Destructive Effects along the British Shore.—Dunwich.—Reculver.— Shakspeare's Cliff. 24 CHAPTER III. THE TIDES. Description of the Phenomenon.—Devastation of Storm-Floods on Flat Coasts.—What did the Ancients know of the Tides?—Their Fundamental Causes revealed by Kepler and Newton.— Development of their Theory by La Place, Euler, and Whewell.—Vortices caused by the Tides.— The Maelstrom.—Charybdis.—The Barre at the mouth of the Seine.—The Euripus 32 CHAPTER IV. MARINE CAVES. Effects of the Sea on Rocky Shores.—Fingal's Cave.—Beautiful Lines of Sir Walter Scott.—The Antro di Nettuno.—The Cave of Hunga.—Legend of its Discovery.—Marine Fountains.—The Skerries. —The Souffleur in Mauritius.—The Buffadero on the Mexican Coast 45 CHAPTER V. OCEAN CURRENTS. Causes of the Oceanic Currents.—The Equatorial Stream.—The Gulf Stream.—Its Influence on the Climate of the West European Coasts.—The Cold Peruvian Stream.—The Japanese Stream 54 CHAPTER VI. THE AËRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL MIGRATIONS OF THE WATERS. Movements of the Waters through Evaporation.—Origin of Winds.—Trade-Winds.—Calms.— Monsoons.—Typhoons.—Tornadoes.—Water-Spouts.—The Formation of Atmospherical Precipitations.—Dew.—Its Origin.—Fog.—Clouds.—Rain.—Snow.—Hail.—Sources.—The Quantities of Water which the Rivers pour into the Ocean.—Glaciers and their Progress.— Icebergs.—Erratic Blocks.—Influence of Forests on the Formation and Retention of Atmospherical Precipitations.—Consequences of their excessive Destruction.—The Power of Man over Climate.—How has it been used as yet? 65 CHAPTER VII. « viii » MARINE CONSTRUCTIONS. Lighthouses.—The Eddystone.—Winstanley's Lighthouse, 1696.—The Storm of 1703.—Rudyerd's Lighthouse destroyed by Fire in 1755.—Singular Death of one of the Lighthouse Men.—Anecdote of Louis XIV.—Smeaton.—Bell Rock Lighthouse.—History of the Erection of Skerryvore Lighthouse.—Illumination of Lighthouses.—The Breakwater at Cherbourg.—Liverpool Docks.— The Tubular Bridge over the Menai Straits.—The Sub-oceanic Mine of Botallack. 80 PART II. THE INHABITANTS OF THE SEA. CHAPTER VIII. THE CETACEANS. General Remarks on the Organisation of the Cetaceans.—The Large Greenland Whale.—His Food and Enemies.—The Fin-Back or Rorqual.—The Antarctic Whale.—The Sperm-Whale.—The Unicorn Fish.—The Dolphin.—Truth and Fable.—The Porpoise.—The Grampus.—History of the Whale Fishery 95 CHAPTER IX. SEALS AND WALRUSES. The Manatees and the Dugongs.—The Seals and the Esquimaux.—King Menelaus in a Seal's Skin.— Barbarous Persecutions of the Seals in Behring's Sea and the Pacific.—Adventures of a Sealer from Geneva.—The Sea Calf.—The Sea Bear.—His Parental Affection.—The Sea Lions.—The Sea Elephant.—The Arctic Walrus.—The Boats of the "Trent" fighting with a Herd of Walruses. —The White Bear.—Touching Example of its Love for its Young.—Chase of the Sea Otter 117 CHAPTER X. SEA-BIRDS. Their Vast Numbers.—Strand-Birds.—Artifices of the Sea-Lark to protect its Young.—Migrations of the Strand-Birds.—The Sea-Birds in General.—The Anatidæ.—The Eider Duck.—The Sheldrake.—The Loggerheaded Duck.—Auks and Penguins.—The Cormorant.—Its Use by the Chinese for Fish-catching.—The Frigate Bird.—The Soland Goose.—The Gulls.—The Petrels. —The Albatross.—Bird-catching on St. Kilda.—The Guano of the Chincha Islands 142 CHAPTER XI. THE REPTILES OF THE OCEAN. The Saurians of the Past Seas.—The Anatomical Structure of the Turtles.—Their Size.—Their Visits to the Shores.—The Dangers that await their Young.—Turtles on the Brazilian Coast.—Prince Maximilian of Neuwied and the Turtle.—Conflicts of the Turtles with Wild Dogs and Tigers on the Coast of Java.—Turtle-catching on Ascension Island.—Tortoise-shell.—The Amblyrhynchus cristatus.—Marine Snakes.—The Great Sea-Snake 172 CHAPTER XII. THE MARINE FISHES. « ix » General Observations on Fishes.—Their Locomotive Organs.—Tail.—Fins.—Classification of Fishes by Cuvier.—Air-Bladder.—Scales.—Beauty of the Tropical Fishes.—The Gills.—Terrestrial Voyages of the Anabas and the Hassar.—Examples of Parental Affection.—Organs of Sense.— Offensive Weapons of Fishes.—The Sea-Wolf.—The Shark.—The Saw-Fish.—The Sword- Fish.—The Torpedo.—The Star-Gazer.—The Angler.—The Chætodon Rostratus.—The Remora, used for catching Turtles.—Defensive Weapons of Fishes.—The Weever.—The Stickleback.—The Sun-Fish.—The Flying-Fish.—The numerous Enemies of the Fishes.— Importance and History of the Herring Fishery.—The Pilchard.—The Sprat.—The Anchovy.— The Cod.—The Sturgeons.—The Salmon.—The Tunny.—The Mackerel Family.—The Eel.— The Murey.—The Conger.—The Sand-Launce.—The Plectognaths.—The Sea-Horse.—The Pipe-Fish.—The Flat-Fishes.—The Rays.—The Fecundity of Fishes 186 CHAPTER XIII. CRUSTACEA. CRABS—LOBSTERS. How are they distinguished from the Insects?—Barnacles and Acorn-shells.—Siphonostomata.— Entomostraca.—King-Crab.—Edriophthalmia.—Sandhoppers.—Thoracostraca.—Compound Eye of the higher Crustaceans.—Respiratory Apparatus of the Decapods.—Digestive Organs.— Chelæ or Pincers.—Distribution of Crabs.—Land Crabs.—The Calling Crab.—Modifications of the Legs in different species.—The Pinna and Pinnotheres.—Hermit Crabs.—The Lobster.—The Cocoa-nut Crab.—The Shrimp.—Moulting Process.—Metamorphoses of Crabs.—Victims and Enemies of the Crustaceans.—Their Fecundity.—Marine Spiders and Insects 243 CHAPTER XIV. MARINE ANNELIDES. The Annelides in general.—The Eunice sanguinea.—Beauty of the Marine Annelides.—The Giant Nemertes.—The Food and Enemies of the Annelides.—The Tubicole Annelides.—The Rotifera. —Their Wonderful Organisation.—The Synchæta Baltica 262 CHAPTER XV. MOLLUSCS. The Molluscs in general.—The Cephalopods.—Dibranchiates and Tetrabranchiates—Arms and Tentacles.—Suckers.—Hooked Acetabula of the Onychoteuthis.—Mandibles.—Ink Bag.— Numbers of the Cephalopods.—Their Habits.—Their Enemies.—Their Use to Man.—Their Eggs.—Enormous size of several species.—The fabulous Kraken.—The Argonaut.—The Nautili. —The Cephalopods of the Primitive Ocean.—The Gasteropods.—Their Subdivisions.—Gills of the Nudibranchiates.—The Pleurobranchus plumula.—The Sea-Hare.—The Chitons.—The Patellæ.—The Haliotis or Sea-Ear.—The Carinariæ.—The Pectinibranchiates.—Variety and Beauty of their Shells.—Their Mode of Locomotion.—Foot of the Tornatella and Cyelostoma.— The Ianthinæ.—Sedentary Gasteropods.—The Magilus.—Proboscis of the Whelk.—Tongue of the Limpet.—Stomach of the Bulla, the Scyllæa, and the Sea-Hare.—Organs of Sense in the Gasteropods.—Their Caution.—Their Enemies.—Their Defences.—Their Use to Man.—Shell- Cameos.—The Pteropods.—Their Organisation and Mode of Life.—The Butterflies of the Ocean.—The Lamellibranchiate Acephala.—Their Organisation.—Siphons.—The Pholades.— Foot of the Lamellibranchiates.—The Razor-Shells.—The Byssus of the Pinnæ.—Defences of the Bivalves.—Their Enemies.—The common Mussel.—Mussel Gardens.—The Oyster.—Oyster Parks.—Oyster Rearing in the Lago di Fusaro.—Formation of new Oyster Banks.—Pearl-fishing in Ceylon.—How are Pearls formed?—The Tridacna gigas.—The Teredo navalis.—The Brachiopods.—The Terebratulæ.—The Polyzoa.—The Sea-Mats.—The Escharæ.—The Lepraliæ.—Bird's Head Processes.—The Tunicata.—The Sea-Squirts.—The Chelyosoma.— The Botrylli.—The Pyrosomes.—The Salpæ.—Interesting Points in the Organisation of the Tunicata 270 « x » « xi » CHAPTER XVI. ECHINODERMATA. STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, AND SEA-CUCUMBERS. The Star-Fishes.—Their Feet or Suckers.—Voracity of the Asterias.—The Rosy Feather-Star.— Brittle and Sand-Stars.—The real Sea-Stars of the British Waters.—The Sea-Urchins.—The Pedicellariæ.—The Shell and the Dental Apparatus of the Sea-Urchins.—The Sea-Cucumbers. —Their strange Dismemberments.—Trepang-fishing on the Coast of North Australia.—In the Feejee Islands 328 CHAPTER XVII. CŒLENTERATA. POLYPS AND JELLY-FISHES. Thread-cells or Urticating Organs.—Sertulariæ.—Campanulariadæ.—Hydrozoic Acalephæ.— Medusidæ.—Lucernariadæ.—Calycophoridæ.—The Velella.—The Portuguese Man-of-war.— Anecdote of a Prussian Sailor.—Alternating Fixed and Free-swimming Generations of Hydrozoa. —Actinozoa.—Ctenophora.—Their Beautiful Construction.—Sea-anemones.—Dead Man's Toes.—Sea-pens.—Sea-rods.—Red Coral.—Coral Fishery.—Isis hippuris.—Tropical Lithophytes.—History of the Coral Islands.—Darwin's Theory of their Formation.—The progress of their Growth above the level of the Sea 345 CHAPTER XVIII. PROTOZOA. The Foraminifera.—The Amœbæ.—Their Wonderful Simplicity of Structure.—The Polycystina.— Marine Infusoria.—Sponges.—Their Pores.—Fibres and Spiculæ.—The Common Sponge of Commerce 378 CHAPTER XIX. MARINE PLANTS. The Algæ.—Zostera marina.—The Ulvæ and Enteromorphæ.—The Fuci.—The Laminariæ.— Macrocystis pyrifera.—Description of the Submarine Thickets at Tierra del Fuego.—Nereocystis lutkeana.—The Sargasso Sea.—The Gathering of edible Birds'-nests in the marine Caves of Java. —Agar-Agar.—The Florideæ.—The Diatomaceæ.—Their importance in the economy of the Seas 390 CHAPTER XX. THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE LIFE. The Dependence of all created Beings upon Space and Time.—The Influences which regulate the Distribution of Marine Life.—The four Bathymetrical Zones of Marine Life on the British Coasts, according to the late Professor Edward Forbes of Edinburgh.—Abyssal Animals.—Bathybius Haeckelii.—Deep-Sea Sponges and Shell-Fish.—Vivid Phosphorescence of Deep-Sea Animals. —Deep-Sea Shark Fishery—The "Challenger." 405 CHAPTER XXI. « xii » THE PHOSPHORESCENCE OF THE SEA. Its Causes.—Noctiluca miliaris.—Phosphorescent Annelides and Beroës.—Intense Phosphorescence of the Pyrosoma atlantica.—Luminous Pholades.—The luminous Shark.—Phosphorescent Algæ. —Citations from Byron, Coleridge, Crabbe, and Scott. 423 CHAPTER XXII. THE PRIMITIVE OCEAN. The Giant-Book of the Earth-rind.—The Sea of Fire.—Formation of a solid Earth-crust by cooling.— The Primitive Waters.—First awakening of Life in the Bosom of the Ocean.—The Reign of the Saurians.—The future Ocean. 433 PART III. THE PROGRESS OF MARITIME DISCOVERY. CHAPTER XXIII. Maritime Discoveries of the Phœnicians.—Expedition of Hanno.—Circumnavigation of Africa under the Pharaoh Necho.—Colæus of Samos.—Pytheas of Massilia.—Expedition of Nearchus.— Circumnavigation of Hindostan under the Ptolemies.—Voyages of Discovery of the Romans.— Consequences of the Fall of the Roman Empire.—Amalfi.—Pisa.—Venice.—Genoa.— Resumption of Maritime Intercourse between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.—Discovery of the Mariner's Compass.—Marco Polo 443 CHAPTER XXIV. Prince Henry of Portugal.—Discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira.—Doubling of Cape Bojador.— Discovery of the Cape Verde Islands.—Bartholomew Diaz.—Vasco de Gama.—Columbus.— His Predecessors.—Discovery of Greenland by Günnbjorn.—Bjorne Herjulfson.—Leif.—John Vaz Cortereal.—John and Sebastian Cabot.—Retrospective View of the Beginnings of English Navigation.—Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci.—Vincent Yañez Pinson.—Cortez.—Verazzani.— Cartier.—The Portuguese in the Indian Ocean 454 CHAPTER XXV. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa.—His Discovery of the Pacific, and subsequent Fate.—Ferdinand Magellan. —Sebastian el Cano, the first Circumnavigator of the Globe.—Discoveries of Pizarro and Cortez. —Urdaneta.—Juan Fernandez.—Mendoza.—Drake.—Discoveries of the Portuguese and Dutch in the Western Pacific.—Attempts of the Dutch and English to discover North-East and North- West Passages to India.—Sir Hugh Willoughby and Chancellor.—Frobisher.—Davis.—Barentz. —His Wintering in Nova Zembla.—Quiros.—Torres.—Schouten.—Le Maire.—Abel Tasman. —Hudson.—Baffin.—Dampier.—Anson.—Byron.—Wallis and Carteret.—Bougainville 464 CHAPTER XXVI. What had Cook's Predecessors left him to discover?—His first Voyage.—Discovery of the Society Islands, and of the East Coast of New Holland.—His second Voyage.—Discovery of the Hervey Group.—Researches in the South Sea.—The New Hebrides.—Discovery of New Caledonia and of South Georgia.—His third Voyage.—The Sandwich Islands.—New Albion.—West Georgia. —Cook's Murder.—Vancouver.—La Peyrouse 485 CHAPTER XXVII. « xiii » Scoresby.—The Arctic Navigators.—Ross.—Parry.—Sufferings of Franklin and his Companions on his Overland Expedition in 1821.—Parry's Sledge-journey to the North Pole.—Sir John Franklin. —M'Clure.—Kane.—M'Clintock.—South Polar Expeditions.—Bellinghausen.—Weddell.— Biscoe.—Balleny.—Dumont d'Urville.—Wilkes.—Sir James Ross.—Recent Scientific Voyages of Circumnavigation 496 DESCRIPTION OF THE FRONTISPIECE. ARCTIC SLEDGE-JOURNEY. The sledge plays a very conspicuous part in the history of arctic discovery, as it enables the bold investigators of the icy wildernesses of the North to penetrate to many places, impervious to navigation, to establish dépôts of provisions for future emergencies, or even becomes the means of saving their lives when their ship has been lost or hopelessly blocked up. Whenever dogs can be had, these useful animals are made use of for the transport. Our plate represents one of these sledging parties threading its way through blocks of ice, and gives a good idea of the difficulties they have to encounter. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Arctic Sledge-Journey Frontispiece. FACING PAGE The Souffleur Rock, Mauritius 52 Lighthouse and Waterspout 65 Australian Sea-Bears 117 The Boats of H.M.S. "Trent" attacked by Walruses 131 Penguins 142 Subaqueous Life—Sticklebacks and Nest 195 Russian Official collecting Algæ 392 MAP. Map of the Globe, showing the direction of the Ocean Currents, Cotidal Lines, &c. facing page 3. WOODCUTS. Annelidans:— Aphrodita, or Sea-Mouse, 264 Nereis, 263 Serpula, attached to a Shell, 266 Beachy Head, 5 Bell Rock Lighthouse, 86 Birds:— Albatross, Wandering, 163 Auk, 168 Great, 151 Avoset, 144 Barnacle Goose, 146 Cormorant, common, 155 Curlew, 143 Eider Duck, 146 Flamingo, 142 Gannet, common, 156 Great Crested Grebe, 150 Guillemot, Black, 165 (winter plumage), 167 Herring Gulls, 158 « xiv » « xv » « xvi » « xvii » Hooded Merganser, 404 Pelican, 116, 154 Penguins, 152 Petrel, Broad-billed, 160 Fork-tailed, 160 Stormy, 162 Plover, 144 Puffins, 165, 167 Red-breasted Merganser, 149 Scissor-bill (Rhynchops nigra), 144 Sheldrake, 148 Skimmer, Black, 144 Snow Goose, 146 Speckled Diver, 145 Tailor-bird, 143 Birds of Passage, 171 Bones of the Anterior Fin of a Whale, 96 Cœlenterata:— Alcyonidium elegans, 363 Astræa, 373 Caryophyllia, 370 Chrysaora hysoscella, 357 Coryniadæ, 358 Ctenophora, 360 Diphyes appendiculata, 353 Grey Sea-Pen, 365 Isis hippuris, 369 Jelly Fishes, 349, 350, 351 Lucernalia auricula, 352 Medusæ, 349, 350, 351 Physalia caravella, 355 Physophora Philippii, 356 Red Coral, 367 Sertularia tricuspidata, 347 Stone Corals, 373, 374 Tubipora Musica, 370 Velella, 354 Virgularia mirabilis, 365 Vogtia pentacantha, 353 Compound Foraminiferous Protozoon, magnified, 380 Crustaceans:— American Sand-Crab, 252 Balanus ovularis, and group of, 2 244 Barnacle, 101, 244 Calling-Crab of Ceylon, 251 Chelura tenebrans, 247 Diogenes Hermit-Crab, 254 Dromia vulgaris, 249 Jamaica Land-Crab, 250 King Crab, 246 Large-clawed Calling-Crab, 250 Limnoria lignorum, 247 Metamorphosis of Carcinus Mœnas, 258 Pea-Crab, 253 Phyllosoma, 258 Pinna Augustana, 253 Sandhopper, 246 Seyllarus equinoxialis, 248 square facets of, 247 « xviii » Spotted Fin-Crab, 252 Spotted Mantis-Crab, 256 Stenopus hispidus, 261 Whale-Louse, 101 Crustaceans and Oysters, 256 Dental Apparatus of the Sea-Urchin, viewed from above, 339 Ear, Human, 196 Ear of the Perch, 196 Echinodermata:— Cross-Fish, common, 334 Eatable Trepang, 340 Goniaster, 336 Lily-Encrinite, 330 Sand-Star, 332 Sea-Urchin, 337 Edible, 338 Mammillated, 338 Warted Euryale, 333 Eddystone Lighthouse, 84 Esquimaux in his Kayak, 120 Fingal's Cave, 47 Fishes:— Ammodyte, or Launce, 230 Anabas of the dry tanks, 192 Anchovy, 214 Angler, 203 Bonito, 223 Cod, 215 Conger Eel, 228 Diodon, 205 Dory, 242 Electric Eel, 202 European Sly, 203 Fierasfer, 340 File-Fish, 232 Flounder, 238 Flying Fish, 156, 206, 224 Frog-Fish, 192 Gar-Fish, 223 Globe-Fish, 232 Gurnard, 197, 414 Haddock, 215 Halibut, 236 Herring, 101, 208 Lamprey, 231 Ling, 215 Mackerel, 222 Mullet, Grey, 415 Red, 197, 415 Myxine, 231 Perch, internal ear of the, 196 Picked Dog-Fish, 200 Pilchard, 212 Pilot-Fish, 225 Plaice, 238 Porcupine-Fish, 232 Salmo Rossii, 220 Salmon, 415 « xix » Sand-Eel, 415 Saw-Fish, 201 Sea-Horse, 234, 344 Shark, Blue, 200 Hammer-headed, 199 White, 198 Short Sun-Fish, 232, 422 Sole, 237 portion of skin of, highly magnified, 190 Sturgeon, common, 217 Surgeon-Fish, 205 Swimming Pegasus, 207 Sword-Fish, 99, 201 Thornback, 240 Torpedo, 201 Toxotes Jaculator, 203 Trunk-Fish, 232 Tunny, 221 Turbot, 237 Wolf-Fish, 197 Foraminifera, various forms of, 381 Fossils:— Ammonite, 437 Belemnite, 437 Ichthyosaurus communis, 172, 438 Pentacrinus Briareus, portion of, 330 Plesiosaurus, 438 Trilobite, 436 Hill at the Rapid on Bear Lake River (North-West Territory, North America), 23 H.M.S. "Resolute" lying to in the North Atlantic, 24 Ice-Bear approaching the "Dorothea" and "Trent", 137 Japan Junks, 63 Licmophora flabellata, 403 Mammals:— Dolphin, 107 Dugong, 117 female, of Ceylon, 119 Manatee, 117 Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus), 134 Porpoise, 108 Rorqual, 101 Sea-Otter, 140 Seal, 119, 123, 135 Greenland, 123 Walrus, 129, 135 Whale, common, 97 Whale, Spermaceti, 102, 115 Mollusks:— Argonaut, 280 Ascidia mammillata, 322 Banded Dipper, 141 Bivalve deprived of its shell, to show its various openings, 300 Botryllus, 324 Bulla, 294 Calamary, 272 Carinaria, 287 Cellularia, 319 Chelyosoma Macleayanum, 323, 327 Chinese Wentle-trap (Scalaria pretiosa), 289 Chiton squamosus, 285 Clavellina producta, 322 Clio borealis, 98 Cockle, common, 303, 306 Cuttle-Fish (Sepia), 104, 275 Diazona violacea, 324 Donax, 301 Edible Mussel, 307 Edible Oyster, 308 Eolis, 284 Eschara cervicornis, 318 Gorgeous Doris, 235 Haliotis, 287 Harp-shell, 288 Hippopus maculatus, 315 Ianthina communis, 290 Leaf-like Sea-mat, 316, 317 Limpet and Shell, 286, 292, 411 Magilus antiquus, 291 Mitre-shells, 288 Murex haustellum, 291, 296 Oliva hispidula, 290 Onychoteuthis, 274 Orange Cone-shell, 288 Pearl-Oyster, 312 Pearly Nautilus, 280 Periwinkle, 411 Petunculus, 302 Pholas striata, 302 Pinna, 305 Poulp (Octopus), 272, 273 Pteroceras scorpio, 290 Retepora cellularis, 318 Salpa, 326 Scyllæa, 283 Sea-Hare, compound stomach of, 295 Sepia, 104, 275 Solen, or Razor-Shell, 304 Strombus pes pelicani, 290 Syllæa, gizzard of, 294 Tiara, 283 Tridacna gigas, 314 Whelk, 413 Worm-shell, 291 Muscles and Electric Batteries of the Torpedo, 202 Nervous Axis of an Annelidan, 262 Noctiluca miliaris, 425 Ova of the Cuttle-Fish, 278 Protozoa:— Amœba, 379 Foraminifera, 381 Halina papillaris, 386 Infusoria, marine, 384 Nummulina discoidalis, 378 Polycistina, 383 Sponges, 385 Tethea, 385, 386 Reptiles:— « xx » Alligator Lucius, 173 Tortoise, 174 Turtle, Green, 170 Hawk's Bill, 180 Loggerhead, 176 Water-Snake, 183 Rocky Mountains at the bend of the Bear Lake River, 79 Rotifera:— Conochilus volvox, 268 Philodina roseola, 269 Ptygura melicerta, 267 Saw of the Saw-Fish, 100 Sea-Fowl Shooting, 168 Skeleton of the Dugong, 118 of the Perch, 188 of the Seal, 119 of the Tortoise, 174 Skerryvore Lighthouse, 89 Skull and Head of Walrus, 129 Skull of Whale, with the Baleen, 98 Sockets with teeth, of Echinus esculentus, 339 Surirella constricta, 402 Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Fishes, 192 Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Mammals and Birds, 175 Theoretic representation of the Circulation in Reptiles, 175 Torso Rock, near Point Deas Thomson, in the Arctic Ocean, 9 Urticating organs of Cœlenterata, 346 Water-Sports, 69, 70 PART I. THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA. Click on image to view larger version. CHAPTER I. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE SEA. « 1 » « 2 » « 3 » >Extent of the Ocean.—Length of its Coast-Line.—Mural, Rocky, and Flat Coasts.—How deep is the Sea?—Average Depth of the Atlantic Ocean.—The Telegraphic Plateau between Newfoundland and Ireland.—Measurement of Depth by the Rapidity of the Tide-Wave.—Progressive Changes in the Limits of the Ocean.—Alluvial Deposits.—Upheaving.—Subsidence.—Does the Level of the Sea remain unchanged, and is it everywhere the same?—Composition and Temperature of Sea-Water.—Its intrinsic Colour.—The Azure Grotto at Capri.—Modification of Colour owing to Animals and Plants.—Submarine Landscapes viewed through the Clear Waters. Of all the gods that divide the empire of the earth, Neptune rules over the widest realms. If a giant-hand were to uproot the Andes and cast them into the sea, they would be engulphed in the abyss, and scarcely raise the general level of the waters. The South American Pampas, bounded on the north by tropical palm-trees, and on the south by wintry firs, are no doubt of magnificent dimensions, yet these vast deserts seem insignificant when compared with the boundless plains of earth-encircling ocean. Nay! a whole continent, even America or Asia, appears small against the immensity of the sea, which covers with its rolling waves nearly three-fourths of the entire surface of the globe. A single glance over the map shows us at once how very unequally water and land are distributed. In one part we see continents and islands closely grouped together, while in another the sea widely spreads in one unbroken plain; here vast peninsulas stretch far away into the domains of ocean, while there immense gulfs plunge deeply into the bosom of the land. At first sight it might appear as if blind chance had presided over this distribution, but a nearer view convinces us that providential laws have established the existing relations between the solid and fluid surfaces of the earth. If the sea had been much smaller, or if the greatest mass of land had been concentrated in the tropical zone, all the meteorological phenomena on which the existence of actual organic life depends would have been so different, that it is doubtful whether man could then have existed, and certain that, under those altered circumstances, he never would have attained his present state of civilisation. The dependence of our intellectual development upon the existing configuration of the earth, convinces us that Divine wisdom and not chaotic anarchy has from all eternity presided over the destinies of our planet. The length of all the coasts which form the boundary between sea and land can only be roughly estimated, for who has accurately measured the numberless windings of so many shores? The entire coast line of deeply indented Europe and her larger isles measures about 21,600 miles, equal to the circumference of the earth; while the shores of compact Africa extend to a length of only 14,000 miles. I need hardly point out how greatly Europe's irregular outlines have contributed to the early development of her superior civilisation and political predominance. The coasts of America measure about 45,000 miles, those of Asia 40,000, while those of Australia and Polynesia may safely be estimated at 16,000. Thus the entire coast-line of the globe amounts to about 136,000 miles, which it would take the best pedestrian full twenty-five years to traverse from end to end. How different is the aspect of these shores along which the ever-restless sea continually rises or falls! Here steep rock-walls tower up from the deep, while there a low sandy beach extends its flat profile as far as the eye can reach. While some coasts are scorched by the vertical sunbeam, others are perpetually blocked up with ice. Here the safe harbour bids welcome to the weather-beaten sailor, the lighthouse greets him from afar with friendly ray; the experienced pilot hastens to guide him to the port, and all along the smiling margin of the land rise the peaceful dwellings of civilised man. There, on the contrary, the roaring breakers burst upon the shore of some dreary wilderness, the domain of the savage or the brute. What a wonderful variety of scenes unrolls itself before our fancy as it roams along the coasts of ocean from zone to zone! what changes, as it wanders from the palm-girt coral island of the tropical seas to the melancholy strands where, verging towards the poles, all vegetable life expires! and how magnificently grand does the idea of ocean swell out in our imagination, when we consider that its various shores witness at one and the same time the rising and the setting of the sun, the darkness of night and the full blaze of day, the rigour of winter and the smiling cheerfulness of spring! Beachy Head. « 4 » « 5 »

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