The Science of Water: Concepts and Applications, Third Edition

550 Pages·2014·10.329 MB·English

by  Spellman, Frank R.

Third Edition
THE
SCIENCE
OF
WATER
Concepts and Applications

Third Edition
THE
SCIENCE
OF
WATER
Concepts and Applications

Frank R. Spellman
Boca Raton London New York
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Contents
To the Reader .................................................................................................................................xvii
Preface.............................................................................................................................................xix
Author .............................................................................................................................................xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................1
Still Water .....................................................................................................................3
Setting the Stage ...........................................................................................................5
Historical Perspective ...................................................................................................7
Thought-Provoking Questions......................................................................................8
References and Recommended Reading ......................................................................8
Chapter 2 All about Water ............................................................................................................9
How Special, Strange, and Different Is Water? ............................................................9
Characteristics of Water..............................................................................................10
Inflammable Air + Vital Air = Water ...............................................................11
Somewhere between 0° and 105° ...............................................................................11
Physical Properties of Water.......................................................................................12
Capillary Action .........................................................................................................12
Water Cycle ................................................................................................................13
Specific Water Movements .........................................................................................14
Q and Q Factors ..........................................................................................................15
Sources of Water .........................................................................................................17
Watershed Protection ..................................................................................................18
Multiple-Barrier Concept ................................................................................18
Watershed Management ..................................................................................19
Water Quality Impact .......................................................................................20
Watershed Protection and Regulations ............................................................20
Watershed Protection Plan ...............................................................................21
Reservoir Management Practices ....................................................................21
Potable Water ..............................................................................................................21

Key Definitions ...........................................................................................................22
Surface Water .............................................................................................................23
Location! Location! Location! ........................................................................23
How Readily Available Is Potable Water? .......................................................23
Advantages and Discharges of Surface Water .................................................26
Surface Water Hydrology ................................................................................26
Raw Water Storage ..........................................................................................27
Surface Water Intakes ......................................................................................27
Surface Water Screens .....................................................................................28
Surface Water Quality ......................................................................................29
Groundwater ...............................................................................................................29
Aquifers ...........................................................................................................29
Groundwater Quality .......................................................................................31
Groundwater under the Direct Influence of Surface Water .............................31
v
vi Contents
Well Systems ..............................................................................................................32
Well Site Requirements ...................................................................................33
Types of Wells .................................................................................................33
Shallow Wells ..................................................................................................34
Deep Wells .......................................................................................................34
Components of a Well .....................................................................................34
Well Evaluation ...............................................................................................36
Well Pumps ......................................................................................................37
Routine Operation and Recordkeeping Requirements ....................................37
Well Log ..........................................................................................................38
Well Maintenance ............................................................................................38
Well Abandonment ..........................................................................................38
Water Use ...................................................................................................................39
Water Content of Crops, Goods, Beverages, Animals, and Industrial Products .........40
Thought-Provoking Question .....................................................................................40
References and Recommended Reading ....................................................................40
Chapter 3 Water Hydraulics ........................................................................................................43
Terminology ...............................................................................................................43
What Is Water Hydraulics? .........................................................................................43
Water Balance .............................................................................................................44
Basic Concepts ...........................................................................................................44
Stevin’s Law ....................................................................................................45
Density and Specific Gravity ......................................................................................46
Force and Pressure ......................................................................................................48
Hydrostatic Pressure ........................................................................................49
Effects of Water under Pressure .......................................................................49
Head............................................................................................................................50
Static Head .......................................................................................................51
Friction Head ...................................................................................................51
Velocity Head ..................................................................................................51
Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) ......................................................51
Pressure and Head ...........................................................................................52
Head and Pressure ...........................................................................................52
Flow/Discharge Rate: Water in Motion ......................................................................52
Area and Velocity ............................................................................................54
Pressure and Velocity .......................................................................................54
Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem ...........................................................55
Conservation of Energy ...................................................................................55
Energy Head ....................................................................................................55
Piezometric Surface .........................................................................................55
Head Loss ........................................................................................................56
Hydraulic Grade Line ......................................................................................57
Bernoulli’s Theorem ........................................................................................57
Bernoulli’s Equation ........................................................................................58
Hydraulic Machines (Pumps) .....................................................................................60
Pumping Hydraulics ........................................................................................61
Well and Wet Well Hydraulics .........................................................................62
Contents vii
Friction Head Loss .....................................................................................................64
Flow in Pipelines .............................................................................................64
Pipe and Open Flow Basics .............................................................................64
Major Head Loss .............................................................................................66
Minor Head Loss .............................................................................................68
Basic Pumping Hydraulics .........................................................................................68
Piping ...............................................................................................................68
Piping Networks ..............................................................................................68
Energy Losses in Pipe Networks .....................................................................69
Pipes in Series ..................................................................................................69
Pipes in Parallel ...............................................................................................70
Open-Channel Flow ...................................................................................................70
Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow ............................................................71
Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow .........................................................71
Open-Channel Flow Calculations ....................................................................73
Open-Channel Flow: The Bottom Line ...........................................................74
Flow Measurement .....................................................................................................75
Flow Measurement the Old-Fashioned Way....................................................76
Basics of Traditional Flow Measurement ........................................................76
Flow Measuring Devices .................................................................................77
Open-Channel Flow Measurement Using Hydraulic Structures .....................85
Thought-Provoking Questions....................................................................................88
References and Recommended Reading ....................................................................89
Chapter 4 Water Chemistry ........................................................................................................91
Chemistry Concepts and Definitions ..........................................................................91
Concepts ..........................................................................................................91
Definitions .......................................................................................................92
Chemistry Fundamentals ............................................................................................94
Matter ..............................................................................................................94
Content of Matter: The Elements ....................................................................95
Compound Substances .....................................................................................96
Water Solutions ..........................................................................................................98
Water Constituents .....................................................................................................99
Solids ...............................................................................................................99
Turbidity ........................................................................................................100
Color ..............................................................................................................100
Dissolved Oxygen..........................................................................................100
Metals ............................................................................................................101
Organic Matter ...............................................................................................101
Inorganic Matter ............................................................................................102
Acids ..............................................................................................................102
Bases ..............................................................................................................102
Salts ...............................................................................................................103
pH ..................................................................................................................103
Optical Phenomena: Water and Light .......................................................................104
Common Water Measurements ................................................................................106
Alkalinity .......................................................................................................107
Water Temperature .........................................................................................107
viii Contents
Specific Conductance ....................................................................................107
Hardness ........................................................................................................108
Water Treatment Chemicals .....................................................................................108
Disinfection ...................................................................................................108
Coagulation ....................................................................................................109
Taste and Odor Removal................................................................................109
Water Softening .............................................................................................110
Recarbonation ................................................................................................110
Ion Exchange Softening ................................................................................110
Scaling and Corrosion Control ......................................................................111
Chemical Drinking Water Parameters ......................................................................111
Organics .........................................................................................................112
Synthetic Organic Chemicals ........................................................................113
Volatile Organic Compounds .........................................................................113
Total Dissolved Solids ...................................................................................113
Fluorides ........................................................................................................113
Heavy Metals .................................................................................................114
Nutrients ........................................................................................................114
Thought-Provoking Question ...................................................................................115
References and Recommended Reading ..................................................................115
Chapter 5 Water Biology ...........................................................................................................117
Biology and Microbiology: What Are They? ...........................................................117
Water Microorganisms .............................................................................................118
Key Terms ......................................................................................................118
Microorganisms in General ...........................................................................119
Classification of Organisms ...........................................................................119
Differentiation ...............................................................................................121
Cells ..........................................................................................................................121
Types of Cells ................................................................................................122
Bacteria .....................................................................................................................124
Structure of the Bacterial Cell .......................................................................125
Bacterial Growth Factors ...............................................................................128
Destruction of Bacteria ..................................................................................128
Waterborne Bacteria ......................................................................................129
Protozoa ....................................................................................................................130
Microscopic Crustaceans ..........................................................................................131
Viruses ......................................................................................................................132
Algae ........................................................................................................................132
Fungi .........................................................................................................................133
Microbiological Processes ........................................................................................133
Pathogenic Protozoa ......................................................................................134
Giardia ...........................................................................................................134
Cryptosporidium ............................................................................................140
Basics of Cryptosporidium ............................................................................141
Cyclospora .....................................................................................................144
Thought-Provoking Questions..................................................................................145
References and Recommended Reading ..................................................................145
Contents ix
Chapter 6 Water Ecology ..........................................................................................................149
Setting the Stage .......................................................................................................150
Key Definitions ..............................................................................................151
Levels of Organization .............................................................................................152
Ecosystems ...............................................................................................................153
Biogeochemical Cycles ............................................................................................154
Carbon Cycle .................................................................................................154
Nitrogen Cycle ...............................................................................................155
Sulfur Cycle ...................................................................................................156
Phosphorus Cycle ..........................................................................................156
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem .................................................................................158
Food Chain Efficiency ..............................................................................................159
Ecological Pyramids ......................................................................................160
Productivity ..............................................................................................................161
Population Ecology ..................................................................................................162
Stream Genesis and Structure...................................................................................166
Water Flow in a Stream .................................................................................168
Stream Water Discharge ................................................................................169
Transport of Material .....................................................................................169
Characteristics of Stream Channels ...............................................................170
Stream Profiles ...............................................................................................170
Sinuosity ........................................................................................................170
Bars, Riffles, and Pools .................................................................................171
Flood Plain .....................................................................................................171
Adaptations to Stream Current ......................................................................174
Types of Adaptive Changes ...........................................................................175
Specific Adaptations ......................................................................................176
An Overview of Benthic Life ...................................................................................176
Benthic Plants and Animals ...........................................................................177
Benthic Macroinvertebrates ......................................................................................177
Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates ................................................178
Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web ..........................................................179
Units of Organization ....................................................................................180
Insect Macroinvertebrates.........................................................................................180
Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera) ..................................................................180
Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera) .......................................................................181
Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera) ....................................................................182
True Flies (Order: Diptera) ............................................................................183
Beetles (Order: Coleoptera) ...........................................................................184
Water Strider (“Jesus Bugs”) (Order: Hemiptera) .........................................186
Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera) .........................................186
Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata) .............................................187
Non-Insect Macroinvertebrates ................................................................................188
Oligochaeta (Family Tuificidae, Genus Tubifex) ...........................................189
Hirudinea (Leeches) ......................................................................................189
Gastropoda (Lung-Breathing Snail) ..............................................................189
Thought-Provoking Questions..................................................................................190
References and Recommended Reading ..................................................................190
x Contents
Chapter 7 Water Pollution .........................................................................................................191
Sources of Contaminants ..........................................................................................192
Radionuclides ...........................................................................................................194
Chemical Cocktail ....................................................................................................194
Byproducts of Chlorine .................................................................................195
Existing Regulations ......................................................................................197
Flocculants .....................................................................................................198
Groundwater Contamination ....................................................................................198
Underground Storage Tanks ..........................................................................199
MtBE .............................................................................................................199
Industrial Wastes ............................................................................................201
Septic Tanks ...................................................................................................201
Landfills .........................................................................................................202
Agriculture .....................................................................................................202
Saltwater Intrusion .........................................................................................203
Other Sources of Groundwater Contamination .............................................203
Self-Purification of Streams .....................................................................................204
Balancing the Aquarium ................................................................................204
Sources of Stream Pollution ..........................................................................205
Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations ...............................................................207
Water Supply, Use, and Wastewater Treatment ........................................................209
Animal Feeding Operations and Animal Waste Treatment ...........................210
Thought-Provoking Question ...................................................................................213
References and Recommended Reading ..................................................................213
Chapter 8 Environmental Biomonitoring, Sampling, and Testing ............................................215
What Is Biomonitoring? ...........................................................................................215
Biotic Index in Streams ............................................................................................217
Benthic Macroinvertebrate Biotic Index ........................................................218
Biological Sampling in Streams ...............................................................................218
Sampling Stations ..........................................................................................220
Sample Collection .........................................................................................221
Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment .......................................................222
Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams ..........................................223
Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment ...............................................................225
Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams ........................................228
Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment .................................................231
Post-Sampling Routine .............................................................................................233
Sampling Devices .....................................................................................................233
Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Monitor ................................................233
Winkler Dissolved Oxygen with Azide Modification Method ......................233
Sampling Nets ...............................................................................................234
Sediment Samplers (Dredges) .......................................................................234
Plankton Sampler ...........................................................................................235
Secchi Disk ....................................................................................................236
Miscellaneous Sampling Equipment .............................................................236
Biological Sampling: The Bottom Line .........................................................236
Drinking Water Quality Monitoring .........................................................................237
Is the Water Good or Bad? .............................................................................237