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ThermoelectricEnergyConversion
BasicConceptsandDeviceApplications
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Thermoelectric Energy Conversion
BasicConceptsandDeviceApplications
Editedby
DianaDávilaPineda
AlirezaRezania
Editors AllbookspublishedbyWiley-VCHare
carefullyproduced.Nevertheless,authors,
Dr.DianaDávilaPineda editors,andpublisherdonotwarrantthe
IBMResearch–ZurichLab informationcontainedinthesebooks,
Science&TechnologyDepartment includingthisbook,tobefreeoferrors.
Säumerstrasse4 Readersareadvisedtokeepinmindthat
8803Rüschlikon statements,data,illustrations,procedural
Switzerland detailsorotheritemsmayinadvertently
beinaccurate.
Dr.AlirezaRezania
LibraryofCongressCardNo.:
AalborgUniversity
appliedfor
DepartmentofEnergyTechnology
Pontoppidanstraede101
9220Aalborg BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-Publication
Denmark Data
Acataloguerecordforthisbookis
availablefromtheBritishLibrary.
Bibliographicinformationpublishedby
theDeutscheNationalbibliothek
TheDeutscheNationalbibliothek
liststhispublicationintheDeutsche
Nationalbibliografie;detailedbibliographic
dataareavailableontheInternetat
<http://dnb.d-nb.de>.
©2017Wiley-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.
KGaA,Boschstr.12,69469Weinheim,
Germany
Allrightsreserved(includingthoseof
translationintootherlanguages).No
partofthisbookmaybereproducedin
anyform–byphotoprinting,microfilm,
oranyothermeans–nortransmitted
ortranslatedintoamachinelanguage
withoutwrittenpermissionfromthe
publishers.Registerednames,trademarks,
etc.usedinthisbook,evenwhennot
specificallymarkedassuch,arenottobe
consideredunprotectedbylaw.
PrintISBN: 978-3-527-34071-2
ePDFISBN: 978-3-527-69814-1
ePubISBN: 978-3-527-69813-4
MobiISBN: 978-3-527-69812-7
oBookISBN: 978-3-527-69811-0
CoverDesign SchulzGrafik-Design,
Fußgönheim,Germany
Typesetting SPiGlobal,Chennai,India
PrintingandBinding
Printedonacid-freepaper
v
Contents
AbouttheEditors xiii
SeriesEditors’Preface xv
ListofContributors xvii
1 UtilizingPhaseSeparationReactionsforEnhancementofthe
ThermoelectricEfficiencyinIV–VIAlloys 1
YanivGelbstein
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 IV–VIAlloysforWasteHeatThermoelectricApplications 2
1.3 ThermodynamicallyDrivenPhaseSeparationReactions 6
1.4 SelectedIV–VISystemswithEnhancedThermoelectricProperties
FollowingPhaseSeparationReactions 9
1.5 ConcludingRemarks 11
References 11
2 NanostructuredMaterials:EnhancingtheThermoelectric
Performance 15
NgoVanNongandLeThanhHung
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 ApproachesforImprovingZT 16
2.3 RecentProgressinDevelopingBulkThermoelectricMaterials 18
2.4 BulkNanostructuredThermoelectricMaterials 20
2.4.1 Bi Te -BasedNanocomposites 20
2 3
2.4.2 PbTe-BasedNanostructuredMaterials 21
2.4.3 Half-HeuslerAlloys 22
2.4.4 NanostructuredSkutteruditeMaterials 24
2.4.5 NanostructuredOxideMaterials 26
2.4.5.1 p-TypeOxides 26
2.4.5.2 n-TypeOxides 28
2.5 OutlookandChallenges 28
Acknowledgement 29
References 29
vi Contents
3 OrganicThermoelectricMaterials 37
SimoneFabiano,IoannisPetsagkourakis,GuillaumeFleury,Georges
HadziioannouandXavierCrispin
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 SeebeckCoefficientandElectronicStructure 41
3.3 SeebeckCoefficientandChargeCarrierMobility 44
3.4 OptimizationoftheFigureofMerit 45
3.5 N-DopingofConjugatedPolymers 46
3.6 ElasticThermoelectricPolymers 48
3.7 Conclusions 48
Acknowledgments 50
References 50
4 SiliconforThermoelectricEnergyHarvesting
Applications 55
DarioNarducci,LucaBelsitoandAlexMorata
4.1 Introduction 55
4.1.1 SiliconasaThermoelectricMaterial 55
4.1.2 CurrentUsesofSiliconinTEGs 56
4.2 BulkandThin-FilmSilicon 57
4.2.1 Single-CrystallineandPolycrystallineSilicon 57
4.2.2 DegenerateandPhase-SegregatedSilicon 60
4.3 NanostructuredSilicon:PhysicsofNanowiresandNanolayers 63
4.3.1 Introduction 63
4.3.2 ElectricalTransportinNanostructuredThermoelectricMaterials 63
4.3.3 PhononTransportinNanostructuredThermoelectricMaterials 66
4.4 Bottom-UpNanowires 66
4.4.1 PreparationStrategies 66
4.4.2 ChemicalVaporDeposition(CVD) 67
4.4.3 MolecularBeamEpitaxy(MBE) 68
4.4.4 LaserAblation 68
4.4.5 Solution-BasedTechniques 69
4.4.6 CatalystMaterials 69
4.4.7 CatalystDepositionMethods 70
4.5 MaterialPropertiesandThermoelectricEfficiency 71
4.6 Top-DownNanowires 71
4.6.1 PreparationStrategies 71
4.6.2 MaterialPropertiesandThermoelectricEfficiency 75
4.7 ApplicationsofBulkandThin-FilmSiliconandSiGeAlloystoEnergy
Harvesting 77
4.8 ApplicationsofNanostructuredSilicontoEnergyHarvesting 79
4.8.1 Bottom-UpNanowires 79
4.8.2 Top-DownNanowires 80
4.9 SummaryandOutlook 83
Acknowledgments 84
References 84
Contents vii
5 TechniquesforCharacterizingThermoelectricMaterials:
MethodsandtheChallengeofConsistency 93
Hans-FridtjofPernau
5.1 Introduction–HittingtheTarget 93
5.2 ThermalTransportinGasesandSolid-StateMaterials 94
5.3 TheCombinedParameterZT-Value 97
5.3.1 ElectricalConductivity 98
5.3.2 SeebeckCoefficient 101
5.3.3 ThermalConductivity 103
5.4 Summary 107
Acknowledgments 107
References 107
6 PreparationandCharacterizationofTE
Interfaces/Junctions 111
GaoMinandMatthewPhillips
6.1 Introduction 111
6.2 EffectsofElectricalandThermalContactResistances 111
6.3 PreparationofThermoelectricInterfaces 114
6.4 CharacterizationofContactResistanceUsingScanning
Probe 117
6.5 CharacterizationofThermalContactUsingInfrared
Microscope 121
6.6 Summary 123
Acknowledgments 124
References 124
7 ThermoelectricModules:PowerOutput,Efficiency,and
Characterization 127
JorgeGarcía-Cañadas
7.1 Introduction 127
7.1.1 MovingfromMaterialstoaDevice 127
7.1.2 DifferencesinCharacterization 128
7.1.3 ChapterSummary 130
7.2 TheGoverningEquations 130
7.2.1 ParticleFluxesandtheContinuityEquation 130
7.2.2 EnergyFluxesandtheHeatEquation 132
7.3 PowerOutputandEfficiency 136
7.3.1 PowerOutput 137
7.3.2 Efficiency 139
7.4 CharacterizationofDevices 142
7.4.1 ThermalContacts 142
7.4.2 AdditionalConsiderations 143
7.4.3 ConstantHeatInputandConstantΔT 144
References 145
viii Contents
8 IntegrationofHeatExchangerswithThermoelectric
Modules 147
AlirezaRezania
8.1 Introduction 147
8.2 HeatExchangerDesign–ConsiderationinTEGSystems 148
8.3 ColdSideHeatExchangerforTEGMaximumPerformance 150
8.4 CoolingTechnologiesandDesignChallenges 154
8.5 MicrochannelHeatExchanger 156
8.6 CoupledandComprehensiveSimulationofTEGSystem 157
8.6.1 GoverningEquations 157
8.6.2 EffectofHeatExchangerInlet/OutletPlenumsonTEGTemperature
Distribution 158
8.6.3 ModifiedChannelConfiguration 162
8.6.4 Flat-PlateHeatExchangerversusCross-CutHeatExchanger 164
8.6.5 EffectofChannelHydraulicDiameter 167
8.7 Power–EfficiencyMap 168
8.8 SectionDesignOptimizationinTEGSystem 169
8.9 Conclusion 170
Acknowledgment 170
Nomenclature 170
References 172
9 PowerElectronicConvertersandTheirControl
inThermoelectricApplications 177
ErikSchaltzandElenaA.Man
9.1 Introduction 177
9.2 BuildingBlocksofPowerElectronics 177
9.3 PowerElectronicTopologies 179
9.3.1 BuckConverter 180
9.3.1.1 On-state 181
9.3.1.2 Off-state 181
9.3.1.3 Averaging 181
9.3.2 BoostConverter 182
9.3.3 Non-InvertingBuckBoostConverter 183
9.3.4 FlybackConverter 184
9.4 ElectricalEquivalentCircuitModelsforThermoelectric
Modules 185
9.5 MaximumPowerPointOperationandTracking 186
9.5.1 MPPT-Methods 187
9.5.1.1 PerturbandObserve 187
9.5.1.2 IncrementalConductance 189
9.5.1.3 FractionalOpenCircuitVoltage 189
9.6 CaseStudy 191
9.6.1 Specifications 192
9.6.2 Requirements 193
9.6.3 DesignofPassiveComponents 193
9.6.4 TransferFunctions 194
Contents ix
9.6.5 DesignofCurrentController 196
9.6.6 MPPTImplementation 196
9.6.7 DesignofVoltageController 198
9.7 Conclusion 201
References 201
10 ThermoelectricEnergyHarvestingforPoweringWearable
Electronics 205
LucaFranciosoandChiaraDePascali
10.1 Introduction 205
10.2 HumanBodyasHeatSourceforWearableTEGs 205
10.3 TEGDesignforWearableApplications:ThermalandElectrical
Considerations 208
10.4 FlexibleTEGs:DepositionMethodsandThermalFlowDesign
Approach 212
10.4.1 DepositionMethods 212
10.4.1.1 ScreenPrinting 213
10.4.1.2 InkjetPrinting 213
10.4.1.3 Molding 213
10.4.1.4 Lithography 214
10.4.1.5 VacuumDepositionTechniques 214
10.4.1.6 ThermalEvaporation 214
10.4.1.7 Sputtering 215
10.4.1.8 MolecularBeamEpitaxy(MBE) 215
10.4.1.9 MetalOrganicChemicalVaporDeposition(MOCVD) 216
10.4.1.10 ElectrochemicalDeposition 216
10.4.1.11 Vapor–Liquid–Solid(VLS)Growth 216
10.4.2 HeatFlowDirectionDesignApproachinWearableTEG 217
10.5 TEGIntegrationinWearableDevices 218
10.6 StrategiesforPerformanceEnhancementsandOrganic
Materials 221
10.6.1 OrganicThermoelectricMaterials 223
References 225
11 ThermoelectricModulesasEfficientHeatFluxSensors 233
GennadiGromov
11.1 Introduction 233
11.1.1 ApplicationsofHeatFluxSensors 233
11.1.2 UnitsofHeatFluxandCharacteristicsofSensors 234
11.1.3 ModernHeatFluxSensors 235
11.1.4 ThermoelectricHeatFluxSensors 236
11.2 ApplicationsofThermoelectricModules 238
11.3 ParametersofThermoelectricHeatFluxSensors 240
11.3.1 IntegralSensitivityS 240
a
11.3.2 SensitivityS 241
e
11.3.3 ThermalResistanceR 241
T
11.3.4 NoiseLevel 241
x Contents
11.3.5 SensitivityThreshold 241
11.3.6 Noise-EquivalentPowerNEP 242
11.3.7 DetectivityD* 242
11.3.8 TimeConstant𝜏 243
11.4 Self-CalibrationMethodofThermoelectricHeatFluxSensors 243
11.4.1 Sensitivity 243
11.4.1.1 Method 243
11.4.1.2 Examples 245
11.4.2 ValuesofNEPandD* 247
11.5 SensorPerformanceandThermoelectricModuleDesign 247
11.5.1 DependenceonPhysicalProperties 248
11.5.2 DesignParameters 248
11.6 FeaturesofThermoelectricHeatFluxSensorDesign 249
11.7 OptimizationofSensorsDesign 250
11.7.1 PropertiesofThermoelectricMaterial 251
11.7.2 ParametersofThermoelectricModule 251
11.7.2.1 PelletsForm-Factor 251
11.7.2.2 ThermoelementHeight 252
11.7.2.3 DimensionsofSensors 254
11.7.2.4 PelletsNumber 254
11.7.3 FeaturesofRealDesign 255
11.8 ExperimentalFamilyofHeatFluxSensors 257
11.8.1 HTX–HeatFluxandTemperatureSensors(HT–HeatFluxand
Temperature) 257
11.8.2 HFX–HeatFluxSensorswithoutTemperature(HF–Heat
Flux) 257
11.8.3 HRX-IRRadiationHeatFluxSensors(HR–HeatFlux
Radiation) 257
11.9 InvestigationofSensorsPerformance 259
11.9.1 GeneralProvisions 259
11.9.2 CalibrationofSensorSensitivity 259
11.9.3 SensitivityTemperatureDependence 261
11.9.4 ThermalResistance 263
11.9.5 TypicalTemperatureDependenceoftheSeebeckCoefficient 264
11.9.6 Conclusions 264
11.10 HeatFluxSensorsattheMarket 265
11.11 ExamplesofApplications 268
11.11.1 Microcalorimetry:EvaporationofWaterDrop 268
11.11.2 MeasurementofHeatFluxesinSoil 269
11.11.3 ThermoelectricIceSensor 269
11.11.4 LaserPowerMeters 274
References 278
12 Photovoltaic–ThermoelectricHybridEnergy
Conversion 283
NingWang
12.1 BackgroundandTheory 283