The Scholar Advocate: Rudolf Schlesinger's Writings on Marxism

376 Pages·2008·12.14 MB·English

by  Ross Goutcher

The Scholar Advocate:
Rudolf Schlesinger’s Writings on
Marxism and Soviet
Historiography

by

Stephanie Jane McKendry

PhD

University of Glasgow
Department of Central and East European
Studies

July 2007

© Stephanie J McKendry, 2007
Abstract

As a notable academic, Marxist writer and one-time political activist, an
extensive critique of Rudolf Schlesinger’s writings is long overdue. Raised in
the revolutionary atmosphere of early twentieth century Austria, Schlesinger
soon became embroiled in central European communism, taking on full-time
work for the German Communist Party in Berlin, Prague and Moscow. He left
the Soviet Union during the purges, having been described as ‘alien to the
party’, and made his way to the UK where he fostered a reputation as an
informed and prolific scholar.

This investigation is not intended to be a biography of Schlesinger, but rather
an ‘intellectual biography’, an examination of his monographs, papers, drafts
and memoir reflections. This allows for an appreciation of his academic
contribution and an understanding of his unique personal motivation and
perspective. Given his experiences, as well as the cultural, political and
ideological paradigm from which he emerged, this analysis provides insights
into Marxist theory, the labour movement, the Soviet Union and German
communism. It also throws light upon the intellectual climate in the West
during the cold war, providing a historiographical snapshot of academic Soviet
studies, particularly in the UK.

The thesis is divided into two sections, with each exploring a different aspect
of Schlesinger’s writing. The first traces Schlesinger’s theoretical development
and education, detailing and analysing the impact of Luxemburg, Lenin, Marx
and Engels on his thought and writing. Schlesinger emerges as a Leninist,
whose understanding of the dialectical nature of Marxism leads him to seek
the next stage in its development, since Lenin’s revolutionary successes
forever altered the socio-economic landscape and thus fated his theories to
obsolescence. An examination of Schlesinger’s attitude towards Stalin as a
Marxist theorist illuminates his pragmatic stance regarding the Soviet leader.
Whilst Stalin’s rule had a considerable human cost and a deleterious impact
upon Marxist theory, to Schlesinger, his leadership was necessary to further
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the existence of the Soviet state, the sole manifestation of the great social
democratic experiment.

The second section focuses on Schlesinger’s writings concerning Soviet
historiography. It is possible to discern changes in tone, emphasis and
argument in his work on this subject. A dichotomy emerges between
Schlesinger’s positive portrayal of historiographical developments in the
Soviet Union in papers written before Stalin’s death and his retrospective
condemnation of these events after 1953. This latter attitude chimes with his
personal memoir reflections of life as an intellectual in Stalin’s Russia, in
which he described a highly controlled, academically stagnant society; yet it
contrasts starkly with his earlier position. It is also possible to detect parallels
between Schlesinger’s changing emphasis and the dynamics of official Soviet
attitudes. An explanation is required if Schlesinger is not to be dismissed as
inconsistent or polemical.

It is argued that Schlesinger can be accurately described as a ‘scholar
advocate’, both in terms of a defender of the Soviet experiment and a
proponent of Marxism and social democracy. This characterisation allows for
an understanding of Schlesinger’s changing stance and motivations and
explains his apparent inconsistency. Schlesinger was loyal to Marxism in
general, but not to the fluctuating dictates of the Russian party. He was not a
polemicist or propagandist but instead sought to stay loyal to wider Marxist
ideals and methodology. For Schlesinger, his pragmatism ensured that he did
not judge events in Russia from the rose-tinted spectacles of utopianism; his
attitude was not swayed by single events, however tragic, and he was aware
both of the utility and the transient nature of Stalin’s rule. This helps to explain
his positive attitude.

In addition, Schlesinger was keen to defend Marxism and the Soviet Union
against what he perceived as unfair criticism; he sought to counter myths and
misunderstandings propagated by disillusioned supporters and opponents.
Schlesinger consciously attempted to combat what he saw, and many
academics have recognised, as the cold war bias of a section of Western
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comment and scholarship. This may, perhaps, have led Schlesinger to paint
too optimistic a picture of the Soviet Union, but his work is a useful and
necessary counterbalance to other literature. Schlesinger was no
propagandist, and recognition of his unique and conscious motivation allows
for a full appreciation of his rich and varied writings.

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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank everyone who helped me in the preparation of this thesis:
Jimmy White, my supervisor, for his guidance, incredible knowledge and
patience. Jimmy has supported me through every step of this process and I
hope he is aware of how grateful I am.
Bert McLernan for his stories and experiences, his generosity with
Schlesinger materials and for the time he devoted to our coffee sessions.
Katy Turton for taking the time to read early drafts and for her advice and
enthusiasm.
Br Paschal Downs for his kind communication and for all of the initial work on
the subject.
Finally, I could not have completed this thesis without the love and support of
my family - my Mam, Dad, Debbie, Adam, and especially my wonderful
husband Ross.

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Contents

Chapter One: Introduction p. 1
Part One: Schlesinger and Marxism
Chapter Two: Rosa Luxemburg p. 61
Chapter Three: Lenin p. 85
Chapter Four: Schlesinger’s later theoretical development p. 131
– Marx, Engels, Lukács and Stalin

Part Two: Schlesinger and Soviet Historiography
Chapter Five: Schlesinger’s personal experiences as an p. 187
academic in Stalin’s Soviet Union
Chapter Six: Schlesinger’s writings on history in Stalin’s p. 209
Soviet Union
Chapter Seven: Schlesinger’s writings on history after p. 276
Stalin’s death
Chapter Eight: Conclusions p. 337
Select Bibliography p. 352

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Photograph of Rudolf Schlesinger provided by kind permission of B.
McLernan
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Chapter One: Introduction

Rudolf Schlesinger: Background
Rudolf Schlesinger was born on 4 February 1901 in Vienna. His father was
from an old Viennese Jewish family. He had attended university and was
baptised in order to marry Schlesinger’s mother. His mother originated from a
West German intellectual family, baptised two generations previously in order
to gain, as Schlesinger expressed it, the ‘entrance ticket to European
civilisation’.1 The family were relatively prosperous, intellectual and
aspirational, hence the baptisms.

Schlesinger claimed that his ethnicity limited his social interaction in his
childhood years. He found racial hatred to be endemic amongst intellectuals
and the lower middle class within Austrian society and this naturally affected
his choice of friends. He became aware of the anti-Semitism he saw as
prevalent in Vienna at a very early age; one of his first nursemaids was
dismissed from the household when his mother heard that she had narrated
an anti-Semitic children’s story to Schlesinger and his sister.2 The young
Schlesinger noticed that racial discrimination and hatred were commonplace
at his school too; some of his teachers were markedly bigoted and fights over
race issues were common amongst pupils. He soon learnt that nationalists of
this type had to be treated with fists, feet or whatever else was available;3
“heaven, hell or Siberia are the most appropriate places for people who rouse
racial hatred”.4 Yet Schlesinger described soon learning at university to regard
the Zionist organisations as political opponents too.5

Schlesinger depicted his schooling as supportive but not stimulating. He often
encountered difficulties with discipline, his keenness to organise student

1 Schlesinger, In a Time of Struggle: Whither Germany? (Glasgow University Library, 1953-
1961, Unpublished) Memoirs Volume I, p1.
2 Schlesinger, Erinnerungen: Bis zu Hitlers Machtübernahme, (1944, Unpublished) Band I p.
6.
3 Ibid. p. 10.
4 Schlesinger, In a Time of Struggle: Whither Germany?, p. 6.
5 Schlesinger, Erinnerungen: Bis zu Hitlers Machtübernahme, pp. 78-9.
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representation would lead him into trouble with the school authorities. Even at
university, Schlesinger remained unsatisfied by the level and tone of learning
provided by its curriculum. However, walking and mountaineering quickly
became a means of escape from adult control. It remained an important
hobby throughout his life, offering peace, freedom and the possibility to
overcome his physical shortcomings – he had suffered from TB early in life,
leaving him with a shortened leg.6

According to his memoirs, certain events within Schlesinger’s formative years
appear to have had a dramatic effect upon his development. He wrote: ‘Under
the impact of World War One I became a socialist; under the impact of the
revolution of 1918-1919 I decided to devote my life to service of the socialist
cause. Without the war, I would have become a somewhat radical liberal
intellectual’.7 This description of his path to socialism was mirrored and
expanded upon in an article on Rosa Luxemburg published in 1966. He wrote
of the influence that Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, as leaders of the
Marxist Left and the anti-war movement in Germany, had had upon him: ‘The
present author is not the only one whom they, and the Russian October
revolution, helped to find his way to revolutionary socialism. (The war, in
isolation, would have produced an indignant pacifism.)’.8 After the Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, Schlesinger began to read Marx and became a
defeatist, supporting the fall of his own country in the belief this would further
the revolutionary cause. This development led to a near permanent rupture in
his relationship with his father, an army officer. The brief existence of the
Hungarian Soviet Republic also had a deep impact upon his personal
development. The joint efforts of Social Democrats and Communists to solve
the problems of political power were inspirational to the young student,
although Schlesinger was still aware of the Republic’s sins of omission:
‘Surely they did not do what was necessary to root their power’.9

6 Ibid. p. 18.
7 Ibid. p. 23. Where the two versions of the memoirs are very similar, and unless otherwise
stated, Schlesinger’s translation from German to English has been used. It is assumed that
he knew best how he wished to express himself.
8 Schlesinger, ‘Marxism Without an Organizing Party’, Soviet Studies, 18, 2, October 1966,
pp225-251 at p. 225.
9 Schlesinger, Erinnerungen: Bis zu Hitlers Machtübernahme, p. 42.
2
The various tremors and aftershocks involved in the collapse of the Hapsburg
Empire also affected Schlesinger.10 For example, a demonstration by the
unemployed workers on ‘bloody’ Maundy Thursday 1919 gave Schlesinger a
picture of the awful conditions in which the Viennese population were
struggling. He witnessed starving women risking their lives by rushing into the
streets, between shots, to take flesh from dead police horses.11 Schlesinger
described his first confrontation with political opponents as occurring at
around the same time. In one incident at university, which contained an
overwhelming fascist front of both students and staff, Schlesinger’s
Association (The Free Association of Socialist Students) invited Otto Bauer to
speak.12 Fascists stormed the meeting and, according to Schlesinger, he had
to run to the nearby left-wing Rossauer barracks to get help. When leaving the
university he was confronted by a fascist gang and was only able to escape
by pretending his spectacle case was a revolver.13

Schlesinger was involved in a number of organisations of the labour
movement during his youth in Austria. During the ‘revolution’ of November
1918, ‘councils’ were formed throughout Austria. The more advanced of the
youth movement emulated the pattern in schools and Schlesinger described
doing so at the Schottengymnasium, his own school. He was immediately
elected to the Central Committee of the youth council and became
responsible for its educational activities. He was re-elected by the council

10 For an academic treatment of this same period in Austrian history by the author see
Schlesinger, Central European Democracy and Its Background, (London, Routledge and
Kegan Paul ltd., 1953), pp. 132… For an alternative description, and one hotly disputed by
Schlesinger, see R. Fischer, Stalin and German Communism, (Cambridge Mass., Harvard
University Press, 1948) pp. 64…, footnote 14. Schlesinger wrote: ‘Ruth Fischer gives her
personal account of the incident, which seems inexact’ (Schlesinger, Central European
Democracy, p. 143, footnote 2). He disagreed with many elements of Fischer’s book,
criticising her claim to have written ‘an objective history’ (Schlesinger, In a Time of Struggle:
Whither Germany?, p. v.).
11 Schlesinger, In a Time of Struggle: Whither Germany?, p. 30-32.
12 Otto Bauer (1881-1938) was one of the founders of the school of Austro-Marxism and wrote
on matters of nationalism. Bauer joined the Social Democratic Party in 1907 and was a
member of the government for a short period following World War One. He was critical of a
Bolshevik-style revolution and advocated the ‘slow revolution’. For more information see T.
Bottomore and P Goode, Austro-Marxism (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1978).
13 Schlesinger, Erinnerungen: Bis zu Hitlers Machtübernahme, p. 78.
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