The Sapient Mind: Archaeology Meets Neuroscience (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B)

124 Pages·2008·2.83 MB·English

by  Colin Renfrew

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Papers of a Theme Issue compiled and edited by Colin Renfrew, Chris Frith 4
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Introduction. The sapient mind:archaeology meets neuroscience 1935 1
Papers of a Theme Issue compiled and edited by Colin Renfrew, Chris Frith
C. Renfrew, C. Frith & L. Malafouris 9
3
3 and Lambros Malafouris
Neural correlates of Early Stone Age toolmaking: technology, language and cognition –
2
in human evolution 1939 0
D. Stout, N. Toth, K. Schick & T. Chaminade 6
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Tool use, communicative gesture and cerebral asymmetries in the modern human brain 1951 |
1
S. H. Frey 2

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Biology is only part of the story ... 1959 n
D. Read & S. van der Leeuw 2
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Big brains, small worlds: material culture and the evolution of the mind 1969 0
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F. Coward & C. Gamble
Wild agency: nested intentionalities in cognitive neuroscience and archaeology 1981
J. S. Jordan
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Between brains, bodies and things: tectonoeticawareness and the extended self 1993 h
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L. Malafouris

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Social ontologies 2003 p
C. Gosden ie
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The role of cultural practices in the emergence of modern human intelligence 2011 t
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E. Hutchins
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Evolving intentions for social interaction: from entrainment to joint action 2021 d
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G. Knoblich & N. Sebanz
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Review. Social cognition 2033 h
C. D. Frith a
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Neuroscience, evolution and the sapient paradox: the factuality of value and of the sacred 2041 l
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C. Renfrew g
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Things to think with: words and objects as material symbols 2049 m
A. Roepstorff e
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Why religion is nothing special but is central 2055 ts
M. Bloch n
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The sapient mind: archaeology meets
neuroscience
Papers of a Theme Issue compiled and edited by Colin Renfrew,
Chris Frith & Lambros Malafouris
Contents
Introduction. Thesapientmind: archaeology meets neuroscience 1935
C. Renfrew,C. Frith and L.Malafouris
Neural correlates of Early StoneAge toolmaking: technology,language and 1939
cognitionin human evolution
D.Stout, N.Toth, K. Schick andT.Chaminade
Tooluse,communicativegestureandcerebralasymmetriesinthemodernhumanbrain 1951
S. H.Frey
Biology is only part of thestory. 1959
D.Read and S.vander Leeuw
Big brains, smallworlds: materialcultureand the evolutionof the mind 1969
F.Coward and C.Gamble
Wild agency: nested intentionalities incognitiveneuroscience andarchaeology 1981
J.S. Jordan
Betweenbrains, bodies and things: tectonoetic awareness and theextended self 1993
L.Malafouris
Social ontologies 2003
C. Gosden
The roleof cultural practices inthe emergence of modern human intelligence 2011
E.Hutchins
Evolving intentions for social interaction: from entrainment tojoint action 2021
G.Knoblich andN.Sebanz
Social cognition 2033
C. D.Frith
Neuroscience,evolutionandthesapientparadox:thefactualityofvalueandofthesacred 2041
C. Renfrew
Things to think with: wordsand objectsas materialsymbols 2049
A. Roepstorff
Why religion is nothing specialbut is central 2055
M. Bloch
1933
Downloaded from rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org on May 15, 2010
Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B(2008)363,1935–1938
doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0016
Publishedonline21February2008
Introduction. The sapient mind: archaeology
meets neuroscience
Theturnofthetwenty-firstcenturyhasseenanewera time somewhere between 100000 and 200000 years
in the cognitive and brain sciences that allows us to ago. Recent DNA studies can now confirm the out-
address the age-old question of what it means to be of-Africahumandispersalhypothesisofapproximately
human from a whole new range of different perspec- 60000 years ago, whereas new archaeological dis-
tives. Our knowledge of the workings of the human coveries, like the findings from the Blombos Cave in
brain increases day by day and so does our under- Africa, have changed our understanding of when and
standing of the extended, distributed, embodied and where the emergence of most behavioural features
culturallymediatedcharacterofthehumanmind.The usuallyassociatedwithmodernhumanintelligencefirst
problem is that these major ways of thinking about appeared(Renfrew2008). Neuroscience,on the other
humancognitionandthethreadsofevidencethatthey hand, based on a quite different scale of spatial and
carry with them often seem to diverge, rather than temporal resolution can also give as a good indication
confrontone another. about whereinthehumanbrainthesemodernhuman
Whatispresentlymissing,andurgentlyneeded,isa capacities (e.g. language, symbolic capacity, represen-
systematic attempt to bridge the analytic gap between tational ability, theory of mind (ToM), causal belief,
thosedefiningtrendsinthestudyofmind.Thiswasthe learning by teaching, ‘we’ intentionality, sense of
principalchallengefor‘Thesapientmind’meetingthat selfhood) can be identified and the possible neural
took place in the McDonald Institute for Archae- networksandcognitivemechanismsthatsupportthem.
ological Research, Cambridge between 14 and 16 The challenge facing us then is how do we put all
September 2007 and which forms the basis of this thesedifferentfacetsandthreadsofevidenceaboutthe
special issue. Our aim was to channel the huge human condition back together again? Naturally, the
emerging analytic potential of current neuroscientific attempted cooperationandcross-fertilization isnotan
research in the direction of a common integrated easy task given the different kinds of information,
researchprogrammetargetingthebigpictureofhuman proceduresandanalyticscalesthatdefinethewaysthe
cognitive evolution, both before and most importantly human mind is approached and understood from
after the so-called speciation phase, i.e. the period different disciplinary perspectives. However, if our
when biological and cultural coevolution worked attempted cross-disciplinary experiment is to add
together to develop the genetic basis of the human something new and important to our current know-
species, asweknowit (Renfrew 2008). ledge then it needs to move beyond the logic of the
Following that, a good way for the reader to ‘localizer’andtellussomethingaboutthewhyandhow
approach and conceptualize the contributions that rather than simply the where and when of human
makeupthisvolumeistoviewthemasthecomponent cognitive becoming. Knowing when and where things
parts of a broader cross-disciplinary experiment. The are happening in cognitive evolution is important
aim of this experiment is to enable archaeology, and interesting but does not explain much. Focusing
anthropology and neuroscience to bring together, ontheinterfacebetween brain andculture,thepapers
underthesamegeneralworkinghypothesis,theneural, that comprise this special Theme Issue struggle to
behaviouralandmaterialcorrelatesofhumancognitive define, reframe and identify some crucial aspects of
becoming. There are many factors that indicate or the human condition, which we think could facilitate
this attempted partnership between archaeology
contribute to a good experimental design but a key
and neuroscience.
feature probably lies in the central question. The
Consider for instance what Renfrew calls the
question that lies at the heart of this volume is rather
‘sapient paradox’ (2008): if the biological basis of our
straightforward, i.e. the sapient mind: what makes the
species has been established perhaps for as much as
human mind unique? What is the sapient mind made
200000 years, then why have the novel behavioural
of?Whatislesssimpleandstraightforward,however,is
aspectsofour‘sapient’statustakensolongtoemerge?
how precisely should this central question be
Why is it that all major evidence in the archaeological
approached or understood.
record indicating important changes in human intelli-
Up to now, working in isolation, both archaeology
gent behaviour came long after the appearance of
and neuroscience have made a number of important
modern anatomy? An interesting observation that
contributions to the study of human intelligence.
archaeology allows us to make, and which also poses
Archaeology, for instance, can now give us a good
a great challenge to the neuroscientist, is that manyof
ideaaboutwhere,andanapproximateideaaboutwhen,
the crucial and enduring aspects of the human
Homo sapiens appeared. The place is Africa and the
condition (symbols, value, religion, literacy, etc.)
appear relatively recently in the archaeological record
One contribution of 14 to a Theme Issue ‘The sapient mind:
archaeologymeetsneuroscience’. and can certainly be seen as the emergent products of
1935 Thisjournalisq2008TheRoyalSociety
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1936 C. Renfrew etal. Introduction
variousculturaldevelopmentaltrajectories,ratherthan the representation of both familiar tool-use skills and
innatebiologicalcapacities.Coulditbethenthatbrain communicative gestures. Although from an evolution-
anatomy and the biological endowment of our species ary perspective these correlations cannot demonstrate
H. sapiens as this emerged between 200000 and the direction of cause and effect, they constitute a
100000 years ago is only part of the story? Moreover, significant development in the long-standing issue of
would it be more productive, especially from a long- thepossiblerelationsbetweenlanguageandtoolusein
term perspective, to explore the assumption that humanevolution.Moreimportantly,theysuggestnew
human intelligence ‘spreads out’ across the body– andimportantinteractionsbetweenbrainandculture,
worldboundary,thusextendingbeyondskinandskull which may help us understand why it is that only
into cultureand the materialworld? humans have developed such an extensive and
Many contributions in this volume argue precisely universal material culture.
that (Gosden 2008; Hutchins 2008; Jordan 2008; Closelyrelatedtothisissueconcerningthedifference
Malafouris 2008; Renfrew 2008; Roepstorff 2008) that enabled human beings to develop complex
although they may differ on how precisely they technologies, is also the question as to why it took
conceptualize this extended anatomy of the human humans so long to ‘invent’ and accelerate innovation.
mind.However,despitethesedifferencesinperspective Read&vanderLeeuw(2008)identifytwomajorphases
andtheoreticalpresuppositions,acommonthreadthat in the coevolutionary spiral between brain and culture
unites all papers in this issue is their agreement about relevant to the human capacity for technological
thespecialrolesthatmateriality,culturalpracticesand innovation. In the first phase it is biology, and in
social interaction play in the shaping of the human particular limited working memory capacity, which
mind throughout its long evolutionary and develop- constrains technological change. In the second phase
mental trajectories. Two major consequences follow however,characterized bythe‘innovative explosion’ in
from that. On the one hand that an effective theevolutionofartefacttechnologiesthatweobservein
cooperation between archaeology and neuroscience the last 25000 years or so, a very different dynamic is
mustaimtoprovideabetter understandingoftherole occurringbetweenhumansandthematerialworld.The
of this constitutive intertwining of brains, bodies, biological constraint seems to have been lifted. Tech-
things and cultural practices in the shaping and nological change is no longer constrained by the
evolution of human cognitive capacities. On the other capacities of working memory, thus enabling an
hand, that the hallmark of human cognitive evolution acceleration in the pace of change in technology. It
maynotbebasedontheever-increasingsophistication thus appears that to understand the coevolutionary
orspecializationofamodularmind,butuponanever- spiralbetweenbrain,bodyandcultureitisnotsufficient
increasing representational flexibility that allows for to discern the possible causal correlations that the
environmentallyandculturallyderivedplasticchanges changesobservedinoneofthemmighteffectuponthe
in the structure and functional architecture of the others. It lies also in discerning the possible ways that
human brain. the actual nature of the relation between them might
Takefor instancetoolmanufacture anduse,atopic havechangedinthecourseofhumanevolution.
that has been the centre of archaeological discussion Indeed, although separating biology from culture
and debate for some decades now. Human brains and sometimesmakesgoodanalyticsense,relevanttosome
technology,intheformofintentionallymodifiedstone problems in human cognitive evolution, it should not
tools, have been coevolving for at least the past obscure the more interesting issue of how they are
2.6Myr, yet the relationship between them remains combined. Integrating different analytic units and
controversial and poorly understood. Thus, under- scales of time, the papers that comprise this Theme
standingthebasesinthebrainofcomplextooluseand Issue seek to understand how different types of data,
toolmaking emerges as a key issue in human cognitive and the questions upon which those data are being
evolution. Tool-use abilities also constitute one of the brought tobear,areenmeshedandrelated asdifferent
most easily identifiable points at which neuroscience aspects of a common phenomenon that we call ‘the
and archaeology meet, given that it is now possible sapient mind’.
using the new brain imaging methods to explore their Toillustratethiscentralpointletususetheexample
neurological foundation in the modern human brain. of Dauya discussed in the paper by Hutchins (2008).
In this context, Stout et al. (2008) present important Dauya comes from the Wawela village on Boyowa
new results from a PET study during experimental IslandintheTrobriandIslandsofPapuaNewGuinea.
stone toolmaking, which support a coevolutionary Dauyaisapreliteratemagician/astronomerresponsible
hypothesis linking the emergence of language and for fixing the agricultural calendar of the village to a
toolmaking.Inparticular,theirimagingdatashowthat seasonalcalendar.Thisisadifficulttask,giventhatthe
neural circuits supporting stone toolmaking partially weatherpatternsintheSolomonSeavaryfromyearto
overlap with language circuits, which suggests that year, but also a very important task, since the correct
these behaviours share a foundation in more general timing of the preparations of the gardens relevant to
humancapacitiesforcomplex,goal-directedactionand changes in the weather is crucial for the crop
arelikelytohaveevolvedinamutuallyreinforcingway. production of the village. Dauya accomplishes his
This important link between complex tool use and task byexamining the sky searching for Kibi (what we
language is also discussed in the contribution by Frey call the Pleiades) among the stars that are visible just
(2008). His paper presents new data from brain- before dawn. When Kibi is visible in the pre-dawn
injured patients and functional neuroimaging studies glow, then it is time to begin preparing the gardens.
that indicate a possible brain network participating in This might look like a trivial task to the analytically
Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B(2008)
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Introduction C.Renfrewet al. 1937
preoccupiedmodernwesternthinkerbutitisalsoatask were something else: astronomers, magicians, priests
thatclearlyinvolvessomeofthemostcrucialelements or transcendental beings. According to Bloch, it is in
that makeupa sapient mind. those transcendental roles where the fundamental
The question to ask then is what makes possible difference between human and, for instance, chim-
this unique cognitive accomplishment of Dauya’s panzee sociability lies. Moreover, the fundamental
mind, namely, determining the seasons with great operation that underpins and makes possible this
precision? Is it his brain size or the small differences transcendental element of human sociality and by
in the DNA that separates him from our closest living extension the phenomenon of religion is the capacity
relatives, the chimpanzees? Dauya’s brain and body for imagination. Thus, it is only through under-
is an evolutionary product and thus different in standing the neurological evidence for the develop-
important ways from the brains of any other present mentofthiscapacityandofitssocialimplicationsthat
or past primates. However, although his biological we will account for religious-like phenomena.
endowment is certainly a crucial constraining or Butwheredoesthepreviousconsiderationleaveour
enabling factor it is not sufficient to generate an initial question about Dauya’s cognitive accomplish-
understanding of how Dauya identifies Kibi in the ments?Thekeypointthatseemstoemergeoutofmost
sky.Toanswer thatquestionweneedtosituateDauya contributions in this Theme Issue lies in the recog-
in his social and cultural context. First we need to nition that Dauya’s calendar is as much a cultural
understand Dauya as a social animal. It is only then accomplishmentasacognitiveaccomplishment.Itisan
that Dauya’s cognitive capacities can be fully appreci- accomplishmentorchestratedbyasetofwaysofseeing
ated and together help us to understand the uniquely the sky and a way of being in the social and material
human ways he looks at the sky and constructs his world. The role of Dauya’s brain is crucial but his
agricultural calendar. unique ability to fix the agricultural calendar does not
However, what does human sociality really consist resideeitherinbrain,bodyorculture.Itresidesinstead
of? From the perspective of neuroscience one way to where brain, body and culture conflate (Malafouris
answerthatistolookforthebasicingredientsofsocial 2008),i.e.in theembodiedprocesses by whichDauya
interaction. For instance, Knoblich & Sebanz (2008) as a social creature has been enculturated into the
argueintheircontributionthatthedistinctivefeatureof practices of Trobriand astronomy(Hutchins 2008).
jointactioninhumansistobefoundinthewayweare Thus the crucial question we need to ask here
able to process other humans’ intentions and to keep concernspreciselytheseembodiedprocessesthatallow
themapartfromourown.Theybuildtheircasearound cultural practices to build upon the human biological
fourdifferentscenariosaimedatspecifyingthepossible endowment in order to produce cognitive accomplish-
basic interpersonal mechanisms that support the type ments.Thisleadsustothethemethatunderliesinone
of intentionality required to engage in joint action, way or another all the papers in this issue and
cultural learning and communication. From the constitutes also a possible conceptual bridge between
perspectiveofarchaeology,however,socialinteractions archaeologyandneuroscience,i.e.learning.Ifweareto
are dependent not only on face-to-face interactions identify a single process or capacity as the key behind
between individuals but also on the active incorpora- theaccomplishmentsofDauya’smindthentheplaceto
tionofmaterialculture.Socialandsymbolicconstruc- lookwouldbeatthewaysapientminds‘learntolearn’.
tions with a clear material basis, like for instance the Indeed, according to Frith (2008), there is something
notionsofvalueandproperty,constitutetheverybasis special in Dauya’s ability to benefit from cultural
of social interaction (Renfrew 2008). It is this learningandthe accumulatedknowledgeof Trobriand
increasing engagement with material culture that astronomy. That special something which seems to be
enabled face-to-face interactions among humans to uniquetothehumanraceisDauya’sabilitytorecognize
be scaled up in the course of human becoming and learn from instruction rather than from mere
(Coward & Gamble 2008). Human social life cannot observation.Withoutthisabilitytolearnbyinstruction
be understood apart from its material entailments and anddeliberatelytoshareknowledge,Dauyacouldnever
that is why, according to Gosden (2008), we need to have seen the sky as a meaningful sign in the complex
developakindof‘socialontology’thatwillenableusto system of Trobriand astronomy. Dauya’s task to read
look at the way human capabilities of mind and body the sky and construct his calendar would have been
are brought about through an interaction with the extremely difficult, if not impossible, to fulfil by
material world without attributing a causally determi- mere observation, imitation and ‘affordance learning’.
nant position to anyone. Prolonged apprenticeship and formal instruction into
MeanwhileBloch(2008)adds,fromthestandpoint Trobriandastronomyasaculturalpracticeisthekey.
of anthropology, a further dimension of human Approaching these issues we should not forget,
sociality. He proposes that in contrast to what we however, that much of the social signalling that
see in other social animals, human sociality is double enables us to learn aboutthe world is notrestrictedto
in that it has both transactional and transcendental the dyadic engagement between humans but includes
elements. What this means, more simply, is that the also various processes of material engagement. Inani-
social position of Dauya as an astronomer in mate objects, material arrangements and symbols can
Trobriand society transcends the predictable achieve- also be used as powerful deliberate social signals thus
ments of the individual. The transcendental social playingacrucialroleintheextraordinaryachievements
element requires the ability to identify and interact of the human race during the last few thousand
with each other not in terms of how people appear to years. Thus, to approach the problems of learning
the senses at any particular moment but as if they and cultural transmission effectively a partnership
Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B(2008)
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1938 C. Renfrew etal. Introduction
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the Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B editorial office for his patience in
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putting this special issue together. The work of Lambros
social interaction: from entrainment to joint action. Phil.
Malafouris at the McDonald Institute for Archaeological
Trans.R.Soc.B363,2021–2031.(doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.
ResearchisfundedbytheBalzanFoundation.
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Colin Renfrew1,* tectonoeticawarenessandtheextendedself.Phil.Trans.R.
Chris Frith2,3 Soc.B363,1993–2002.(doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0014)
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story .. Phil. Trans. R.Soc. B 363, 1959–1968. (doi:10.
1The McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research,
1098/rstb.2008.0002)
Universityof Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3ER, UK Renfrew, C. 2008 Neuroscience, evolution and the sapient
E-mail address: [email protected]; paradox:thefactualityofvalueandofthesacred.Phil.Trans.
[email protected] R.Soc.B363,2041–2047.(doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0010)
2WellcomeCentre for Neuroimaging, UCL, London Roepstorff,A.2008Thingstothinkwith:wordsandobjects
WC1N 3BG, UK as material symbols. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 363,
3Center forFunctional Integrative Neuroscience, A˚arhus 2049–2054.(doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0015)
Stout,D.,Toth,N.,Schick,K.&Chaminade,T.2008Neural
University Hospital, Nørrebrogade44, Building 30, 8000
correlates of Early Stone Age tool-making: technology,
A˚arhus C, Denmark
languageandcognitioninhumanevolution.Phil.Trans.R.
*Authorsfor correspondence. Soc.B363,1939–1949.(doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0001)
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Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B(2008)363,1939–1949
doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0001
Publishedonline21February2008
Neural correlates of Early Stone Age
toolmaking: technology, language and
cognition in human evolution
Dietrich Stout1,*, Nicholas Toth2,3, Kathy Schick2,3 and Thierry Chaminade4
1Institute of Archaeology,University College London, 31–34 Gordon Square,London WC1H 0PY, UK
2Stone AgeInstitute, 1392 West Dittemore Road, Gosport, IN 47433, USA
3Department of Anthropologyand CognitiveScience Program,IndianaUniversity, StudentBuilding 130,
701 East Kirkwood Avenue,Bloomington,IN 47405-7100, USA
4Functional ImagingLab, Institute of Neurology, University CollegeLondon, 12 QueenSquare,
London WC1N 3BG, UK
Archaeological and palaeontological evidence from the Early Stone Age (ESA) documents parallel
trendsofbrainexpansionandtechnologicalelaborationinhumanevolutionoveraperiodofmorethan
2Myr. However, the relationship between these defining trends remains controversial and poorly
understood.Here,we present results from apositronemission tomography studyoffunctional brain
activationduringexperimentalESA(OldowanandAcheulean)toolmakingbyexpertsubjects.Together
withapreviousstudyofOldowantoolmakingbynovices,theseresultsdocumentincreaseddemandsfor
effectivevisuomotorcoordinationandhierarchicalactionorganizationinmoreadvancedtoolmaking.
This includes an increased activation of ventral premotor and inferior parietal elements of the
parietofrontalpraxiscircuitsinboththehemispheresandoftherighthemispherehomologueofBroca’s
area.Theobservedpatternsofactivationandofoverlapwithlanguagecircuitssuggestthattoolmaking
and languageshare a basis in more general human capacities for complex, goal-directed action. The
resultsareconsistentwithcoevolutionaryhypotheseslinkingtheemergenceoflanguage,toolmaking,
population-levelfunctionallateralizationandassociationcortexexpansioninhumanevolution.
Keywords: brain;tool;positron emissiontomography;Oldowan; Acheulean; Broca’s area
1.INTRODUCTION Ongoing research with macaques (Maravita & Iriki
Humanbrainsandtechnologyhavebeencoevolvingfor 2004) and humans (Frey et al. 2005; Johnson-Frey
at least the past 2.6Myr since the appearance of the et al. 2005) has identified putatively homologous
first intentionally modified stone tools (Semaw et al. parietofrontal prehension circuits supporting simple,
1997). Roughly 90% of this time span, from 2.6 to unimanualtooluseinboththespecies.Buildingonthis
0.25Myr ago, is encompassed by the Early Stone Age work, a recent fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission
(ESA; generally known outside Africa as the Lower tomography (FDG-PET) study of Oldowan toolmak-
Palaeolithic). This period witnessed a technological ing in technologically naive modern humans (Stout &
progression from simple ‘Oldowan’ stone chips to Chaminade 2007) documented reliance on one such
skilfully shaped ‘Acheulean’ cutting tools, as well as a anteriorparietal–ventralpremotorgraspsystemaswell
nearlythreefoldincreaseinhomininbrainsize(figure1). as additional sensorimotor and posterior parietal
These parallel trends of brain expansion and techno- activations related to the distinctive demands of this
uniquely hominin skill. Of particular interest was the
logical elaboration are defining features of human
bilateral recruitment of human visual specializations
evolution, yet the relationship between them remains
(Orban et al. 2006) in the dorsal intraparietal sulcus
controversial and poorly understood (Gibson & Ingold
(IPS).Incontrast,therewasnoobservedactivationof
1993;Ambrose2001;Wynn2002;Stout2006).Thisis
prefrontalcortex(PFC).
largely due to a lack of information regarding the
These results suggest that evolved parietofrontal
cognitive and neural foundations of technological
circuits enhancing sensorimotor adaptation, rather
behaviour. From this evolutionary perspective, under-
than higher level prefrontal action planning systems,
standing the brain bases of complex tool-use and
werecentraltoearlyESAtechnologicalevolution.This
toolmaking emerges as a key issue for cognitive neuro-
is consistent with the fossil evidence of expanded
science(Johnson-Frey2003;Iriki2005).
posterior parietal lobes but relatively primitive pre-
frontallobesinhomininsleadinguptotheappearance
*Authorforcorrespondence([email protected]). of the first stone tools (Holloway et al. 2004).
However, this study of novice toolmakers did not
Electronicsupplementarymaterialisavailableathttp://dx.doi.org/10.
1098/rstb.2008.0001orviahttp://journals.royalsociety.org. address expert performance. Subjects learned to
detach sharp-edged stone flakes in a least-effort
One contribution of 14 to a Theme Issue ‘The sapient mind:
archaeologymeetsneuroscience’. fashion, but did not replicate the well-controlled,
1939 Thisjournalisq2008TheRoyalSociety
Downloaded from rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org on May 15, 2010
1940 D. Stout et al. Neuralcorrelatesof ESA toolmaking
(a) (b) 0.25 Myr ago
flake ‘blank’ edging
1200 cm3
Late Acheulean
850 cm3 thinning and shaping
Early Acheulean
handaxe
450 cm3
Figure2.Acheuleantoolmaking.ElementsdrawnafterInizan
Oldowan 2.6 Myr ago etal.(1999).
Figure1.EarlyStoneAge(a)technologicaland(b)biological inparticular maybeassociatedwiththerepresentation
change.ElementsdrawnafterKlein(1999).
ofstoredmotor programmesforfamiliar tool-useskills
(Johnson-Frey et al. 2005). The activation of left
systematic and productive flaking seen at many Old-
posterior temporal cortex, commonly associated with
owan sites (e.g. Semaw 2000; Delagnes & Roche
semantic knowledge of tools and tool-use (Johnson-
2005). Such skilled Oldowan flaking might hypotheti-
Frey et al. 2005; Lewis 2006), might be expected for
cally involve strategic elements and neural substrates
similar reasons.
notimplicatedinnovicetoolmaking.Thisisevenmore
Putatively strategic task elements are greatly
probable with respect to the more complexAcheulean
expanded in Acheulean toolmaking, which requires
toolmaking techniques that began to develop after ca
the intentional shaping of the core to achieve a
1.7Myr ago.
predetermined form (figure 2). The prototypical
Oldowan toolmaking involves the production of
Acheulean artefact is the so-called ‘hand axe’, a
sharp-edged flakes by striking one stone (the core)
more-or-less symmetrical, teardrop-shaped tool well
withanother(thehammerstone).Effectiveflakedetach-
suited for butchery and other heavy duty cutting tasks
ment minimally requires visuomotor coordination and
(Schick & Toth 1993). Although initially quite crude,
evaluationofcoremorphology(e.g.angles,surfaces)so
by the later ESA (less than 0.5Myr ago) these tools
that forceful blows may reliably be directed to
appropriate targets. Skilled flake production, in which achieved a level of refinement indicative of advanced
manyflakesareremovedfromasinglecore,potentially toolmakingskills(Edwards2001)andperhapsevenof
adds a strategic element because successive flake aesthetic concerns beyond the purely utilitarian. Such
removals leave ‘scars’ which may be used to prospec- later Acheulean forms were the focus of the current
tively create and/or maintain favourable flaking sur- study,providingmaximumcontrastwith theOldowan
faces. If such strategizing is important to skilled toolmaking task.
Oldowan toolmaking, one might expect an increased OnecommonAcheuleantoolmakingmethodknown
recruitmentofprefrontalactionplanningandexecution fromprehistory(Toth2001)istheproductionofhand
systems(Passingham&Sakai2004;Ridderinkhofetal. axesonlarge(greater than20cm)flake‘blanks’struck
2004; Petrides 2005), including anterior cingulate from boulder cores. Subsequent shaping of the tool
cortex (ACC) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex involves three overlapping stages of flaking, as
(dlPFC), in which activity is modulated by the described in Stout et al. (2006). First, a relatively
complexity of motor planning tasks (Dagher et al. large, dense hammerstone is used to create a regular
1999). Expert familiarity with objects and actions edge around the perimeter of the blank, centred
involved in thetoolmakingtask mightalso be reflected betweenthetwofaces.This‘roughingout’stageserves
intheactivationoftheleftinferiorparietallobe(IPL),a tocreateviableanglesandsurfacesfor thesubsequent
region commonly activated in tasks involving familiar removaloflargethinningflakes.‘Primarythinningand
tools (Lewis 2006), including pantomime, action shaping’thenaimstoreducetheoverallthicknessofthe
planning and action evaluation. The left posterior IPL piece and to begin imposing the desired symmetrical
Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B(2008)
Downloaded from rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org on May 15, 2010
Neural correlates of ESA toolmaking D. Stoutet al. 1941
shaping goal3
e
al
c
al s thinning thinning goal2
or
p
m
e
d t bifacial bifacial bifacial
n
al a edging edging edging goal1
ati
p
s
elementary elementary elementary elementary
action
percussion percussion percussion percussion
Figure3.Multi-levelorganizationofAcheuleantoolmaking.
shape.Thinningflakesmustberelativelythinandlong, activationdatawerecollectedfortwotoolmakingtasks:
travelling at least halfway across the piece in order to Oldowan flake production and Acheulean hand axe
reduce thickness in the centre. Prior to each thinning making. As in the previous study, toolmaking tasks
flakeremoval,intensive,lightflaking is donealong the were contrasted with a control task consisting of
perimeter with a smaller hammerstone to steepen, bimanualpercussionwithoutflakeproduction.Results
regularizeandstrengthentheedge.Thinningflakesare fromthecurrentstudywerealsocontrastedwithnovice
thenstruckusingeitherthehammerstoneorabatonof (post-practice)data from the previous study.
antler, bone or wood, which acts as a ‘soft’ hammer
facilitatingtheremovalofthinflakes.Thebatonismost
extensivelyusedinthefinalstage,‘secondarythinning 2.MATERIAL AND METHODS
and shaping’, which involves more intensive edge (a)Experimentalsubjects
Three healthy, right-handed subjects (one female) between
preparation through flaking and abrasion/grinding in
30and55yearsofageparticipatedinthestudy.Thesubjects
order to ensure highly controlled flake removals that
were professional archaeologists with more than 10 years
establish a thin, symmetrical tool with straight and
stone toolmaking experience and already familiar with
regular edges.
Oldowan and Late Acheulean technologies. All subjects
From a toolmaker’s perspective, later Acheulean
gaveinformedwrittenconsent.Thestudywasperformedin
hand axe making seems much more demanding than
accordance with the guidelines from the declaration of
Oldowan flaking, requiring (i) greater motor skill and
Helsinki and was approved by the Human Subjects
practicalunderstandingofstonefracture(i.e.influence
CommitteeatIndianaUniversity,Bloomington.
of angles, edges and surfaces), (ii) more elaborate
planning including the subordination of immediate
(b)Experimentaltasks
goals to long-term objectives (figure 3), and (iii) an
Eachsubjectperformedthreeexperimentaltasks.
increased number of special purpose knapping tools
andtechnicaloperations.IncomparisonwithOldowan (i) Control. Subjects were instructed to forcefully strike
flaking, later Acheulean toolmaking might thus be togethercobbleswithoutattemptingtoproduceflakes.
expected to produce increased activity in (i) parieto- They were given no specific instructions as to the
frontal prehension circuits involved in manual percep- manner in which to strike the stones together. This
tual–motor coordination (Rizzolatti et al. 1998; control was designed to match gross visuomotor
Maravita&Iriki2004;Freyetal.2005),(ii)prefrontal elements of the experimental task without involving
action planning systems potentially including ACC theelementsofpercussiveaccuracy,corerotationand
and dlPFC (Dagher et al. 1999; Passingham & Sakai supportdistinctivetostonetoolmaking.
2004; Petrides 2005), and (iii) left posterior parietal (ii) Oldowantoolmaking.Onasubsequentday,thesubjects
were instructed to produce ‘Oldowan-style’ flakes
and temporal cortices associated with semantic re-
fromthecobblesfromthecart.Theywereinstructed
presentations for the use of familiar tools (Johnson--
to focus on the production of flakes that would be
Freyet al.2005).
‘useful for cutting’, rather than on the shape of the
In order to test these predictions, we conducted a
residual cores. No further instructions regarding
secondFDG-PETstudyofESAtoolmakingbyexpert
toolmakingmethodsweregiven.
subjects. Unfortunately, stone toolmaking is not a
(iii) Acheuleantoolmaking.Onathirdday,thesubjectswere
common skill in the modern world, and hence
instructed to make one or more ‘typical Late
recruitment of expert subjects presents a unique
Acheulean’ hand axes, as time permitted. Obsidian
challenge. The current study included three pro-
flakeblankswereprovidedonthecart.Therelatively
fessional archaeologists, each with more than 10 years large blanks were supported on the left thigh rather
toolmaking experience. Despite this limited sample than held in the hand (figure 2). Nevertheless, the
size,theFDG-PETprocedureyieldedalargesignalto lefthandplayedakeyroleinmanipulating,orienting
noise ratio sufficient for statistical analysis. Following and stabilizing the blank. Stone working tools are
the methods established in the previous study, brain highly personal items to which individuals become
Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B(2008)