The Russian Arctic Straits (International Straits of the World)

291 Pages·2005·2.05 MB·English

by  R. Douglas Brubaker

THE RUSSIAN ARCTIC STRAITS
INTERNATIONAL STRAITS OF THE WORLD
Series Editor: Gerard J. Mangone
Graduate College of Marine Studies
University of Delaware, U.S.A.
1. Butler W.E.: Northeast Arctic Passage, 1978.
ISBN 90-286-0498-7
2. Leifer, M.: Malacca, Singapore and Indonesia, 1978.
ISBN 90-286-0778-1
3. Ramazani, R.K.: The Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz, 1979.
ISBN 90-286-0069-8
4. Truver, S.C.: The Strait of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean, 1980.
ISBN 90-286-0709-9
5. Lapidoth-Eschelbacher, R.: The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, 1982.
ISBN 90-247-2501-1
6. Alexandersson, G.: The Baltic Straits, 1982.
ISBN 90-247-2595-X
7. Pharand, D.: The Northwest Passage: Arctic Straits, 1984.
ISBN 90-247-2979-3
8. Cuyvers, L.: The Strait of Dover, 1986.
ISBN 90-247-3252-2
9. Rozakis, C.L. and Stago, P.N.: The Turkish Straits, 1987.
ISBN 90-247-3464-9
10. Pak, C.Y.: The Korean Straits, 1988.
ISBN 90-247-3724-9
11. Morris, M.: The Straits of Magellan, 1989.
ISBN 0-7923-0181-1
12. Kaye, S.: The Torres Strait, 1997.
ISBN 90-411-0506-9
13. Ünlü, N.: The Legal Regime of the Turkish Straits, 2002.
ISBN 90-411-1904-3
14. Brubaker, R.D.: The Russian Arctic Straits, 2004.
ISBN 90-04-14180-4
INTERNATIONAL STRAITS
OF THE WORLD
Edited by Gerard J. Mangone
THE RUSSIAN ARCTIC STRAITS
R. Douglas Brubaker
MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERS
LEIDEN/BOSTON
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
Printed on acid-free paper.
ISBN 90-04-14180-4
© 2005 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands
Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill Academic Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff
Publishers and VSP.
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Printed and bound in The Netherlands
CONTENTS
FOREWORD BY GERARD J. MANGONE ...................................................... xi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................... xiii
LIST OF MAPS AND TABLES .......................................................................... xv
CHAPTER 1 SEAS AND STRAITS OF THE RUSSIAN
ARCTIC WATERS ...................................................................... 1
Geographical Characteristics .............................................................................. 2
Seas of the Northern Sea Route .................................................................... 2
Barents Sea ...................................................................................................... 3
Kara Sea .......................................................................................................... 4
Laptev Sea ........................................................................................................ 5
East Siberian Sea ............................................................................................ 5
Chukchi Sea .................................................................................................... 6
The Main Straits of the Northern Sea Route .................................................. 6
Straits Connecting the Barents and Kara Seas ............................................ 8
Straits Connecting the Kara and Laptev Seas .............................................. 11
Straits Connecting the Laptev and East Siberian Seas ................................ 12
Passage from the East Siberian Sea to the Chukchi Sea ............................ 14
Russian Arctic Ports ............................................................................................ 14
Port of Dikson .................................................................................................. 15
Port of Tiksi .................................................................................................... 15
Port of Pevek .................................................................................................... 17
Port of Dudinka .............................................................................................. 17
Routes from the Barents Sea to the Bering Strait .......................................... 17
Navigation through the Northern Sea Route ................................................ 18
From the Barents Sea to the Kara Sea ........................................................ 19
Kara Sea .......................................................................................................... 19
From the Kara Sea to the Laptev Sea ........................................................ 20
Laptev Sea ........................................................................................................ 21
From the Laptev Sea to the East Siberian Sea ............................................ 22
From the East Siberian Sea to the Chukchi Sea ........................................ 22
Summary .......................................................................................................... 22
v
Contents
CHAPTER 2 LEGAL ISSUES FOR PASSAGE IN THE NORTHERN
SEA ROUTE ................................................................................ 25
International Regimes .......................................................................................... 25
Ice-Covered Areas ............................................................................................ 25
International Straits .......................................................................................... 26
Passage of State Vessels in the Maritime Zones .......................................... 28
Legal Issues Relative to Russian Arctic Waters ............................................ 29
CHAPTER 3 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND A RUSSIAN ARCTIC
WATERS REGIME .................................................................... 33
Customary and Conventional Law .................................................................... 33
Limitations ............................................................................................................ 34
Historic Title .................................................................................................... 34
Marine Research by State Vessels .................................................................. 35
Indreleia and the Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case .................................................. 37
Route of Similar Convenience – Messina Exception .................................. 37
Straits Connecting the High Seas or a Foreign Territorial Sea ................ 38
Claims Affecting the Legal Regime of Arctic Waters ...................................... 39
Sector Principle ................................................................................................ 39
Indigenous Rights ............................................................................................ 39
Straight Baselines .............................................................................................. 39
Overflight .......................................................................................................... 40
Scandinavian Interests, Russian Law and Western Acquiescence .................. 40
Scandinavia ...................................................................................................... 40
Russian Law .................................................................................................... 40
Western Acquiescence ...................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER 4 LAW OF THE SEA CONVENTION ARTICLE 234
AND OTHER REGIMES .......................................................... 43
Article 234 and Ice-Covered Areas .................................................................... 43
Other Marine Environmental Regimes .............................................................. 45
Applicable Customary International Law .......................................................... 46
Opinio Juris and the International Court of Justice ...................................... 46
Setting Norms for a Rule of Law .................................................................. 48
General or Local Customary Law .................................................................. 49
Subsequent State Practice and Application to Treaties ................................ 51
Status of Article 234 and Other Regimes under Customary Law ............ 52
Interpretations of Article 234 .............................................................................. 54
Non-discrimination ............................................................................................ 55
Navigation and the Exclusive Economic Zone ............................................ 56
Russian Practice .............................................................................................. 58
vi
Contents
Canadian Practice ............................................................................................ 60
U.S. Practice .................................................................................................... 61
Practice by Other States ................................................................................ 65
Interpretations of Other Marine Environmental Regimes .............................. 67
Certain LOSC Articles and the 1958 Territorial Sea Convention ............ 67
MARPOL 73/78 .............................................................................................. 70
Practice of Marine Pollution Conventions .................................................... 71
Regional Co-operation and Special Areas ........................................................ 73
Regional Co-operation .................................................................................... 73
Special Areas, Enclosed, and Semi-Enclosed Seas ........................................ 74
Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 5 STATE PRACTICE AND ARTICLE 234 .............................. 79
Compliance of Russian Practice with Article 234 ............................................ 79
Application to State Vessels ............................................................................ 79
Non-Discriminatory Adoption and Enforcement .......................................... 80
Criminal Liability ............................................................................................ 81
Due Regard to Navigation .............................................................................. 82
Presence of Ice ................................................................................................ 86
Liability and Compensation ............................................................................ 87
Enforcement ...................................................................................................... 89
Special Areas .................................................................................................... 91
Appraisal .......................................................................................................... 93
Compliance of Russian Practice with the LOSC Legal Regime .................... 95
Prescriptive Jurisdiction .................................................................................... 95
Enforcement ...................................................................................................... 97
Special Areas .................................................................................................... 100
Appraisal .......................................................................................................... 101
Compliance of Russian Practice With Pre UNCLOS III Rules .................... 102
Navigational Practice in Russian Arctic Waters ................................................ 103
Norwegian Experience .................................................................................... 104
American Experience ...................................................................................... 105
Arctic Navigational Practice – Traditional Regimes .................................... 106
Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 107
CHAPTER 6 THE INTERNATIONAL STRAITS REGIME ...................... 111
Historic Background and Key Issues ................................................................ 111
Geographic Description .................................................................................. 112
Regimes under Customary International Law .................................................. 113
Transit Passage ................................................................................................ 113
State Practice, Norm Setting and Opinio Juris .............................................. 114
Limitations to Coastal State Enforcement .................................................... 118
vii
Contents
Straits Used for International Navigation .......................................................... 119
Actual Use or Future Use .............................................................................. 119
Limits of Coastal State Prescription .................................................................. 120
Transit Passage and Innocent Passage .......................................................... 121
International Environmental Provisions .......................................................... 123
Interpretations .............................................................................................. 124
Applicable .................................................................................................... 124
Generally Acceptable .................................................................................. 127
Differences .................................................................................................... 127
International Safety Provisions ........................................................................ 128
Limits of Coastal State Enforcement ................................................................ 130
Transit Passage ................................................................................................ 130
State Practice .................................................................................................... 131
Legislative History ............................................................................................ 132
Ice-Covered Areas and the International Straits Regimes .............................. 133
LOSC International Straits Regime .............................................................. 134
State Practice .................................................................................................... 136
Legislative History ............................................................................................ 136
Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 137
CHAPTER 7 STATE PRACTICE IN THE RUSSIAN
ARCTIC STRAITS .................................................................... 141
Russian Position on International Use .............................................................. 142
Pre-1982 Legislation ........................................................................................ 142
Post-1982 Legislation ...................................................................................... 144
American Position on International Use ............................................................ 146
Foreign Use of Russian Arctic Straits ................................................................ 147
Record of Use .................................................................................................. 148
Limits of Prescriptive and Enforcement Jurisdiction ........................................ 151
Russian Position .............................................................................................. 151
Surface Passage of State and Commercial Vessels – LOSC Part III ........ 151
Surface Passage of State and Commercial Vessels – 1958 TSC ................ 156
Surface Passage of State and Commercial Vessels – Non-International
Straits ............................................................................................................ 157
U.S. Position .................................................................................................... 158
Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 162
CHAPTER 8 RIGHTS OF PASSAGE BY STATE VESSELS .................... 165
LOSC and 1958 TSC ........................................................................................ 165
Historic Background ........................................................................................ 166
Interpretative Issues .......................................................................................... 167
viii
Contents
Prescriptive and Enforcement Jurisdiction ........................................................ 168
Limits of the Coastal State ............................................................................ 168
State Practice .................................................................................................... 169
1958 TSC Article 16(4) and Submerged Passage ........................................ 169
LOSC Article 39(1)(c) and Submerged Passage ............................................ 170
U.S. Military Doctrine ................................................................................ 170
Russian Military Doctrine .......................................................................... 171
Foreign Submerged Passage and the Russian Arctic Straits ............................ 173
Russian Practice .............................................................................................. 174
LOSC Part III ................................................................................................ 174
1958 TSC ........................................................................................................ 176
Non-International Straits ................................................................................ 176
Protests by Russia ............................................................................................ 177
U.S. Practice .................................................................................................... 178
International Legal Regimes .......................................................................... 180
Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 181
CHAPTER 9 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS .................................................... 187
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................... 197
NOTES .................................................................................................................... 203
ix