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The Rom a n Ar my The Rom a n Ar my A Social and Institutional History Pat So ut h ern Santa Ba rb a ra ,Ca l i forn i a—•—Denver,Co l orado—•—Ox ford ,E n gl a n d Copyright © 2006 by Pat Southern All rights reserved.No part ofthis publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,in any form or by any means,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording, or otherwise,except for the inclusion ofbriefquotations in a review,without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Southern,Pat,1948– The Roman army :a social and institutional history / Pat Southern. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-85109-730-9 (hardback :alk.paper) — ISBN 1-85109-735-X (ebook) 1.Rome—Army—History. 2.Sociology,Military—Rome. I.Title. U35.S625 2006 355.00937—dc22 2005030389 Production Team Acquisitions Editor:Simon Mason Senior Media Editor:Sharon Daugherty Media Resources Manager:Caroline Price Production Editor:Cisca Louise Schreefel EditorialAssistant:Alisha Martinez Production Manager:Don Schmidt Manufacturing Coordinator:George Smyser Text design:Jane Raese 09 08 07 06 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is also available on the WorldWide Web as an e-book. Visit http://www.abc-clio.com for details. ABC-CLIO,Inc. 130 Cremona Drive,P.O.Box 1911 Santa Barbara,California 93116-1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Manufactured in the United States ofAmerica C o n t e n t s Preface and Acknowledgments, ix List ofMaps, xi 1 Introduction, 1 Sources, 5 Archaeological Sources, 5 Papyrus Records and WritingTablets, 6 Epigraphic Records, 8 Sculpture, 10 Diplomas, 17 Coins, 18 Literary Sources, 18 2 Historical Background, 37 Geopolitical Considerations, 37 Demography, 48 Politics,Domestic and International, 50 Recurrent Themes in the PoliticalAgenda ofthe Late Republic, 54 Imperial Politics, 59 The Components ofRoman Political Organization, 61 Economy and Finance, 70 Civil-Military Relations, 76 Value Systems, 82 3 The Roman Army, 87 Origins, 87 TheArmy ofthe Roman Republic, 87 Organizational Structure, 98 The Legions, 98 Elite or Special Units, 115 Guard Troops: The Praetorian Guard, 115  C on ten ts Guard Troops: The Equites Singulares, 118 Troops in Rome: The Urban Cohorts and the Vigiles, 119 TheAuxiliary Units, 120 Camel Riders (Dromedarii), 123 The NationalNumeri, 123 Officers, 124 Senatorial Officers, 125 Equestrian Officers, 128 Camp Prefect, 129 Primus Pilus, 130 Centurions, 130 Other Ranks, 131 Recruitment, 131 Training and Indoctrination, 133 Promotion, 137 4 Culture ofthe RomanArmy, 141 Physiognomy, 141 Ethnic and Racial Composition, 141 Legionaries, 142 Auxiliaries, 143 Women, 144 Morale and Discipline, 145 Military Justice System, 145 Punishments, 146 Desertion, 148 Leaves and Furloughs, 149 Traditions, 149 UnitEsprit de Corps, 149 Decorations and Medals, 150 Uniforms, 152 Military Music, 158 Holidays and Observances, 160 Veterans, 162 Pensions, 166 5 The Roman Army at War, 171 Doctrine and Strategy, 171 Forts and Frontiers, 178 Tactics and Operational Concepts, 186 Order ofMarch, 187 C on ten ts  Marching Camps and Temporary Camps, 190 Battle, 194 Planning and StaffWork, 198 Command and Control, 199 CombinedArms Operations, 204 6 Tools ofWar, 209 Weaponry, 209 ThePilum, 209 TheLancea, 211 Bows and Arrows, 211 TheGladius, 212 TheSpatha, 212 ThePugio, 213 Artillery, 213 Slingshots and Stones, 217 Logistics and Transport, 217 Intelligence, 225 Communications, 229 Military Medicine, 233 Technology, 237 Cartography, 239 7 The Late RomanArmy, 245 Political Developments, 245 FieldArmies and FrontierArmies, 247 Command, 254 Officers and Men, 256 Weapons and Equipment, 260 Fortifications, 261 8 Great Soldiers and Battles, 267 Famous Generals, 267 Generals ofthe Late Republic, 268 Imperial Generals, 290 Heroes from the Other Ranks, 302 Famous Battles and Campaigns, 307 Pharsalus,48BC, 308 Philippi,42BC, 309 Britain in AD60: Suetonius Paullinus and the Defeat ofBoudicca, 312  C on ten ts Britain in AD83/84: Gnaeus JuliusAgricola and Mons Graupius, 313 Trajan and the Dacian Campaigns, 315 Severus and the Eastern Campaigns, 318 9 CurrentAssessment, 323 Major Problems in the Study ofthe Roman Army, 323 Further Directions ofResearch on the Roman Army, 326 Appendix, 331 Glossary, 335 Bibliography, 343 Index, 351 About the Author, 383 P r e f a c e a n d A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s It has becomecustomary nowadays to start with an apologyfor“yetan- otherbookontheRomanarmy,”butthisauthor,whowouldbethefirstto admittoaverystrongbiastowardthesubject,feelsthatnoapologiesneed be made for any amount ofbooks on the Roman army.Not everyone has access to large libraries in the various educational institutions in the United States and Europe,so it is onlystudentsandlecturerswho can view in oneplace most of thepastandpresentcorpusof booksontheRomansandtheirarmies.Forthe interested general reader,reliant upon public libraries and bookshops,the range is more limited . Books go out of pri n t , and the older ones do not nece s s a ri ly turnupinquantityontheInternetorinsecond-handbookshops.Therewasa time, about thirty to forty years ago perhaps,when you could readeverything therewasavailableintheEnglishlanguageontheRomanarmy,butthankfully that has changed.The plethora ofmodern books,some ofthem translated from otherlanguages,eachhave something extratosay,viewedfromadifferentan- gle,and many ofthem do what books should do,which is to make youthink.As for this book,it may just be the first one that a reader picks up about the Roman army,andthenheorshemaywanttoreadotherbookstotakethesubjectfur- ther.No serious-minded study on armies can afford to ignore the tremendously successfularmy that established a presence over so many parts of Europe and the Middle East,and survived far longer than any other. My first debt , a very old one now, is to the BBC, wh i chbroadcast history programsforschoolsonWednesdays,whenIsupposetheteachersweregladof theopportunity to assemble us in our small village school, all twenty-eight of us,tolistentotheradio,whereithasbeensaid“thepicturesarebetter.”Mysec- ond debtistothosewonderfulepicfilmsthattheyusedtodosowellandstill make now and then.It doesn’t matter whether they get all ofit right,ifthe films fosteranddevelopaninterestthatisalreadythere.Youcanlearnalotbytrying to find out if the Roman soldiers were dre s s ed correct ly, i f t h ey did put thei r shields over their heads and call it a tortoise,ifchariot races really were like that, ifthere was a slave revolt crushed by the armies ofMarcus Licinius Crassus,and if Marcus Aurelius fought the German tribes from a base on the Danube. My thirddebtistocolleaguesfromtheDepartmentofArchaeologyattheUniver- sity of Newcastle upon Tyne, to the late Charles Daniels who discussed things

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Books go out of pri n t , and the older ones do not nece s s a ri ly if there was a slave revolt crushed by the armies of Marcus Licinius Crassus, and . thing and everything concerned with attack and defense, law and order, t a ry com m a n ders acted as regi onal govern ors in rem o te parts of