The Rise of Imperial Rome AD 14-193

95 Pages·2013·16.1 MB·English

by  Duncan Campbell

Essential Histories
The Rise of Imperial Rome
AD 14–193
Duncan B Campbell
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
Essential Histories
The Rise of Imperial Rome
14–193
AD
Duncan B Campbell
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
Contents
Introduction 7
Chronology 8
Background to war
The Roman empire in AD 14 11
Warring sides
Rome and her enemies 18
Outbreak
An uneasy peace 30
The fighting
Extending the empire 35
Portrait of a soldier
Gaius Velius Rufus 78
The world around war
Travels in an unarmed province 81
Portrait of a civilian
Dio Cocceianus ‘Chrysostom’ 83
How the war ended
Neglecting the empire 86
Conclusions and consequences
A changing empire 88
Further reading 93
Index 94
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
Introduction
During the reign of Hadrian, the great Roman and goods to criss-cross the entire world in
historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus wrote safety. However, when Tacitus claims that
what would be his final work, entitled the this peace was ‘undisturbed or scarcely
Annals: it is a chronicle of Roman history challenged’, he exaggerates. A chronological
from the death of Augustus to the death survey of the military exploits of successive
ofNero. In it he lamented that, while the emperors demonstrates that, for all the talk
historians of the Roman Republic had written of pax Romana(‘the Roman peace’), conflict
about ‘great wars, the storming of cities, and rumbled constantly around the periphery
the capture of vanquished kings’, his own ofthe empire, occasionally flaring into
themes were ‘restricted and inglorious: full-scale war. Tacitus was well aware
peace,undisturbed or scarcely challenged, ofthis.Even in his own lifetime, the
depressing events in the city, and an emperor steadyrollcall of senators honoured
uninterested in extending the empire’ (Annals withornamentatriumphalia(‘triumphal
4.32, referring to the emperor Tiberius). ornaments’), the inexorable increase in
Tacitus had grown up under the Flavian eachemperor’s imperatorial acclamations
emperors. He served out a moderately (each one a sign that success had been won
successful senatorial career, perhaps in warfare somewhere in the empire), and
beginning with a tribunate in one of the the fact that the great double doors of the
legions that spearheaded the invasion Temple of Janus, required by tradition to be
ofCaledonia under his father-in-law, closed in times of peace, stood ajar for years
GnaeusJulius Agricola. Having risen on end – all of these elements demonstrated
totheconsulship under the emperor that the rise of the Roman empire was not
Nerva,hewent on to hold the prestigious accomplished by peaceful means.
proconsulship of Asia towards the end of The first two centuries of the Roman
Trajan’s reign. He had thus lived through empire may have ushered in a period of
atime of great wars, but – unfortunately peace for the citizens of Rome, but the ruling
forus – never took the opportunity to write elite – the senators and equestrians who did
of Trajan’s storming of cities (both in Dacia the emperor’s bidding – still required their
and in Parthia) and the capture of the opportunity to win glory, even if victories
vanquished Dacian king Decebalus. were now won under the auspices of the
A generation or so before Tacitus, emperor. More important than pax Romana,
Plinythe encyclopaedist had celebrated to these men, was Victoria Augusta(‘the
‘theboundless majesty of the Roman peace’ emperor’s victory’). Year by year and decade
(Natural History27.3), which enabled men by decade, successful emperors managed the
affairs on the frontiers in a way that ensured
Trajan’s Column was completed in AD113. The relief the winning of glory for these men, while
sculpture wrapped around the 100ft exterior tells the emperors who were ‘uninterested’ failed to
story of Trajan’s two Dacian Wars. Inside, a staircase
see the dangers of ignoring these potential
spirals up to a viewing platform at the top. On the
rivals. Our chronological survey reveals the
emperor’s death in AD117, his ashes (and subsequently
those of his widow, Plotina) were deposited inside depressing cycle of success and failure in
thebase. therise of imperial Rome.
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
Chronology
27BC–AD14 Reign of Augustus 11–9BC Revolt in Thrace suppressed
byLucius Calpurnius Piso
26–25BC Campaign of Aelius Gallus in
Arabia Felix; campaign of Publius AD4–5 Campaigns beyond the Rhine
Carisius in north-western Spain briefly resumed
25BC Campaign of Aulus Terentius AD6 Establishment of Judaea as
Varro Murena in the Alps; estab- aprovince; warfare in north
lishment of Galatia as a province Africa; creation of the aerarium
following death of its king militareto pay military pensions
24BC Campaign of Lucius Aelius AD6–9 Revolt in Pannonia and
Lamia in north-western Spain Illyricum suppressed by Tiberius
24–22BC Campaign of Gaius Petronius AD9 Loss of three legions in
inEthiopia Teutoberg Forest in Germany
under Publius Quinctilius Varus
19BC Campaign of Lucius Cornelius
Balbus in north Africa (the last AD14 Establishment of the military
private citizen to be granted zones on the upper and lower
a‘triumph’); Marcus Agrippa Rhine; probable establishment
completes pacification of Spain ofPannonia as a province; army
revolts in Illyricum and along
17–16BC Campaigns of Publius Silius Rhine on news of Augustus’ death
Nerva in the Alps
AD14–37 Reign of Tiberius
16BC Loss of legion in Gaul under
Marcus Lollius AD15–16 Campaign of Germanicus across
the Rhine
15BC Campaigns of Tiberius and
Drusus in the Alps and Raetia; AD16 Battle of Idistaviso; won by
probable establishment of Germanicus
Noricum as a province
AD17 Establishment of Cappadocia as
14BC Establishment of Alpes a province, after death of its king
Maritimae as a province
AD17–24 Revolt of Tacfarinas in north
13BC Campaign of Marcus Agrippa Africa finally suppressed by
inIllyricum Publius Cornelius Dolabella
12–9BC Campaign of Tiberius in Balkans AD21 Revolt of Florus and Sacrovir
inGaul suppressed by Gaius
12–5BC Campaigns beyond the Rhine Silius Largus
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
Chronology 9
AD24 Battle of Auzea, won by Publius AD60 Revolt of Boudica in Britannia
Cornelius Dolabella suppressed by Gaius Suetonius
Paullinus
AD25 Probable establishment of Raetia
as a province AD62 Surrender of a Roman army
under Lucius Caesennius Paetus
AD28 Revolt of the Frisii; defeat of to the Parthians at Rhandeia
Lucius Apronius
AD63 Establishment of Alpes Cottiae
AD37–41 Reign of Gaius (Caligula) asa province following the
death of its king
AD39 Third Augusta Legion removed
from the command of the AD66–74 First Jewish War
proconsul of Africa
AD68 Revolt of Gaius Julius Vindex
AD39–40 Caligula’s manoeuvres on the inGaul, suppressed by Lucius
Rhine and North Sea coast Verginius Rufus
AD40 Establishment of Mauretania as AD69 Year of the Four Emperors; first
aprovince, after death of its king and second battles of Cremona
AD41–54 Reign of Claudius AD69–79 Reign of Vespasian
AD41 Campaign of Servius Sulpicius AD70 Batavian Revolt suppressed by
Galba and Publius Gabinius Quintus Petillius Cerialis; siege
Secundus across the Rhine of Jerusalem by Titus
AD42 Reorganization of Mauretania AD72 Province of Cappadocia expanded
astwo provinces; revolt of to include the kingdom of
Lucius Arruntius Scribonianus Commagene following the
inDalmatia deposition of its king
AD43 Invasion of Britain under Aulus AD74 Siege of Masada by Lucius
Plautius; establishment of Flavius Silva
Lycia–Pamphilia as a province
AD79–81 Reign of Titus
AD44 Establishment of Moesia as
aprovince; establishment AD81–96 Reign of Domitian
ofBritannia as a province
(although conquest continues) AD83 Battle of Mons Graupius, won by
Gnaeus Julius Agricola
AD46 Establishment of Thracia as a
province, after death of its king AD83–85 Chattan War
AD54–68 Reign of Nero AD85–89 Domitian’s Dacian War
AD58–63 Parthian crisis twice defused by AD86 Province of Moesia split into
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Moesia Superior and Moesia
Inferior
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
10 Essential Histories • The Rise of Imperial Rome AD14–193
AD88 First battle of Tapae, won by AD145–52 Moorish War
Lucius Tettius Julianus
AD156–58 Antonius Pius’ Dacian War
AD89 Revolt of Lucius Antonius
Saturninus on the upper Rhine AD161–69 Joint reign of Marcus Aurelius
and Lucius Verus
AD90 Formal creation of the provinces of
Germania Superior and Germania AD161 Battle of Elegeia, lost by
Inferior out of the military zones MarcusSedatius Severianus
on the Rhine (approximate date)
AD162–66 Lucius Verus’ Parthian War
AD96–98 Reign of Nerva
AD167 Dacian provinces united into a
AD98–117 Reign of Trajan single province of Three Dacias
AD101–02 Trajan’s First Dacian War AD167–75 Marcomannic Wars
AD101 Second battle of Tapae AD169–80 Sole reign of Marcus Aurelius
AD105–06 Second Dacian War; establishment AD170 Invasion of Italy by Marcomanni
of Dacia as a province and Quadi
AD106 Province of Pannonia divided AD175 Revolt of Avidius Cassius in
into Pannonia Superior and Syriasuppressed by Publius
Pannonia Inferior; establishment Martius Verus
of Arabia as a province
AD178–80 Marcomannic Wars resumed
AD114–15Trajan’s Parthian War
AD180–92 Reign of Commodus
AD117–38Reign of Hadrian
AD193 Reign of Pertinax
AD117–18 Province of Dacia split into Dacia
Superior, Dacia Inferior and (now AD193–211Reign of Septimius Severus
or slightly later) Dacia Porolissensis
AD194 Province of Syria split into
AD122 Hadrian’s Wall begun SyriaPhoenice and Syria Coele
(approximate date)
AD195 Establishment of Osrhoene as
AD132–35 Second Jewish War; province of aprovince
Judaea renamed Syria Palaestina
AD197 Province of Britannia split into
AD138–61 Reign of Antoninus Pius Britannia Superior and Britannia
Inferior; establishment of
AD139 Expansion of Britannia into Mesopotamia as a province
lowland Scotland
AD198 Formal creation of the province
AD140 Antonine Wall begun of Numidia
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
Background to war
The Roman empire in 14
AD
The first emperor
from which this period of history has
become known as the Principate – the new
When Augustus (r. 27BC–AD14) came to Caesar made sure to remain in the public
thethrone as the first emperor of Rome, eye, first by monopolizing the annual
hebegan to bring order to the chaos that consulship (but only until 23BC), and
20 years of civil war had wrought. The old secondly by staging three ostentatious
Republican system of rule by the senate, triumphal processions, reminding everyone
with its two annually elected consuls, still of his victories in Illyricum in 34–33BCand
functioned, but had proved vulnerable to at Actium in 31BC, and of his subsequent
manipulation by powerful individuals. capture of Egypt from Cleopatra, last of the
During the mid-1st centuryBC, Julius Caesar Ptolemies. Then, having been voted the
in particular had subverted the senate by name Augustus (‘sacred one’) in 27BC,
carefully amassing personal power, at first hebegan (cunningly but tactfully)
through the agency of a triumvirate (‘rule
bythree men’, which he came to dominate), The famous statue of Augustus, discovered at Livia’s villa
at Prima Porta near Rome. The sculpted cuirass depicts
and then by becoming dictator perpetuo
the handing over of a Roman battle-standard, thought
(‘dictator for life’) in 44BC. Consequently, torepresent those lost to the Parthians by Crassus
the Roman populace had become used to in53BC, which were returned to Augustus in 20 BC.
autocratic rule. (UIGvia Getty Images)
Caesar’s example was followed by his
adopted son and heir, Augustus, who –
initially going by the name Caesar, in the
aftermath of the dictator’s assassination in
44BC– swore ‘to attain his father’s honours’
(Cicero, Letters to Atticus16.15.3). Although
no less ambitious, the new Caesar was
perhaps more savvy. He moved from being
amember of a triumvirate – whose supreme
authority was carefully disguised in its
remit‘to restore the Republic’ – to being
thesaviour of Italy from the clutches of
anorientalized Mark Antony (whom he
defeatedat the naval battle of Actium
in31 BC). But he always downplayed the
extentof his power. ‘After I extinguished
thefires of civil war’, he later wrote, ‘having
taken control of affairs in accordance with
the wishes of my fellow citizens, I transferred
the Republic from my own power into the
arbitration of the senate and people of Rome’
(The Achievements of the Divine Augustus34.1).
As an ‘ordinary citizen’ – he referred to
himself only as princeps(‘the first citizen’),
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
12 Essential Histories • The Rise of Imperial Rome AD 14–193
toaccumulate a range of traditional hadto be made to bring his powers into line
Republicanoffices, which would (legally but with his senatorial counterparts.
unobtrusively) guarantee the continuation of In 23BC, although Augustus now stepped
his authority at Rome. down from the consulship, he took the
Like the magistrates of old, he was tribunicia potestas(‘power of a tribune’),
granted a provincia(‘sphere of authority’, referring to the tribune of the plebs, an
usually implying the temporary governorship annually renewed office that had symbolic
of a geographical territory), except that overtones of ‘the people’s champion’; more
Augustus’ province extended across Spain importantly, besides conferring sacrosanctitas
and Gaul in the west, and Syria and Egypt (‘immunity from prosecution’), it granted
inthe east, encompassing all the armies that Augustus the practical privilege of vetoing
were located there, and, although technically any proposals in the senate. Each of his
temporary, gradually became permanent. He successors made sure that they acquired
arranged this ‘on the pretext that the senate thispower and, more importantly, that
might enjoy the best parts of the empire theyrenewed it every year.
without anxiety, while he himself took on All of the titles, honours and functions
the hardships and hazards’, as the historian taken by Augustus formed the basis of
Cassius Dio explained, ‘but the real object thelegal authority that successive Roman
ofthis arrangement was that the senators emperors would wield. Their power, though
should be unarmed and unequipped for absolute, was firmly based in Republican
battle, while he alone possessed arms and tradition. The long reign of Augustus, which
maintained soldiers’ (Roman History53.12.3). lasted over 40 years, gave the new regime
This ulterior motive is compelling, for, time to become embedded in the Roman
bythis stage, only one Roman legion lay consciousness. Furthermore, Augustus’
outside the emperor’s domain and took its decision to implement a dynastic succession
orders from the annually elected proconsul by adopting his stepson Tiberius as his
of Africa. chosen heir, and bestowing the tribunicia
Of course, the government of Rome potestasupon him, influenced the future
wasstill the preserve of the senatorial class, direction of the Roman Principate. It would
thelanded aristocracy of which Augustus be many years before the arcanus imperii
andhissuccessors were all members. But (‘secret of empire’) was divulged: namely,
thenewemperor began to involve their asTacitus put it, that ‘an emperor could be
equestrian counterparts – those families made elsewhere than at Rome’ (Histories1.4).
whoeither could not afford to join the
senatorial order (there was a property
A military regime
qualification of one million sesterces,
whereas an equestrian required only a
networth of 400,000 sesterces, at a time Augustus himself emphasized that ‘I excelled
when the common man might earn 500 everyone in auctoritas[‘influence’], although
sesterces a year) or chose not to. This move I possessed no more official power than
was ostensibly to widen the pool of available others who were my colleagues’ (The
army officers, but fortuitously served as a Achievements of the Divine Augustus34.3).
surreptitious foil to the senatorial monopoly Indeed, his senatorial colleagues continued
on power. The important governorship of to play their traditional role in government,
Egypt, with its agrarian wealth (on one though Augustus, by force of his auctoritas,
estimate, as much as one-third of Rome’s was able to influence their decisions.
grain came from Egypt), was entrusted to Senators continued to occupy the main
anequestrian praefectus(‘prefect’), rather military and civil offices, such as legionary
than a senatorial proconsul or a legatus commands and provincial governorships,
(‘legate’), even though special provision butmost of these now operated within the
© Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com