Table Of Content

AAffrriiccaann--AAmmeerriiccaannss aanndd tthhee MMaarriinneess T hhee eessttiimmaatteedd 55,,000000 bbllaacckkss,, ffrreeee mmeenn aanndd ssllaavveess,, ttoo ddeeffeenndd tthhee nnaattiioonn,, bbuutt tteennssiioonnss bbeettwweeeenn tthhee U Unnitietdd S Sttaatteess wwhhoo sseerrvveedd tthhee AAmmeerriiccaann ccaauussee iinn tthhee RRewvoolluuttiioonn-- aanndd FFrraannccee rreessuulltteedd iinn tthhee bbuuiillddiinngg ooff aa fflleeeett ttoo rreeppllaaccee tthhee aarryy WWaarr iinncclluuddeedd aatt lleeaasstt aa ffeeww CCoonnttiinneennttaall MMaa-- ddiissbbaannddeedd CCoonnttiinneennttaall NNaavvyy.. IInn 11779988,, wwhheenn tthhee ttiimmee aarr-- rriinneess.. FFoorr eexxaammppllee,, iinn AApprriill 11777766 CCaappttaaiinn MMiilleess PPeennnniinngg-- rriivveedd ttoo rreeccrruuiitt carrewwss ffoorr tthhee nneeww wwaarrsshhiippss,, tthhee NNaavvyy ttoonn,, MMaarriinnee ooifffiicceerr ooff ththee C Coonntitnineenntatall bbrrigig RRepeprirsisaall,, bbaannnneedd ""NN-e groes oorr MMuullaattttooeess,I"n gg rroouuppiinngg tthheemm wwiitthh ""PPeerr-- rreeccrruuiitteedd aa 5sllaavvee, , JJoohhnn MMaarrttiinn ((aallssoo kknnoowwnn aass KKeettoo)),, Ssoonnss wwhhoossee CChhaarraacctteerrss aarree SSuussppiicciioouuss.:"' TThhee CCoommmmaannddaanntt wwiitthhoouutt oobbttaaiinniinngg ppeerrmmiissssiioonn ffrroomm tthhee ssllaavveehhoollddeerr,, WWiill-- ooff tthhee rreeeessttaabblliisshheedd MMaarriinnee CCoorrppss,, LLiieeuutteennaanntt CCoolloonneell WWili-- lliiaamm MMaarrsshhaallll ooff WWiillmmiinnggttoonn., DDeellaawwaartee.. PPrriivvaattee MMaarrttiinn lliiaamm WWaarrdd BBuurrrroowwss,, ffoolllloowweedd tthhee NNaavvyy''ss eexxaammppllee aanndd ppaarrttiicciippaatteedd iinn aa ccrruuiissee tthhaatt rreessuulltteedd iinn tthhee ccaappttuurree o off ffiivvee bbaarrrreedd AAffrriiccaann--AAmmeerriiccaannss ffrroomm eennlliissttiinngg,, aalltthhoouugghh bbllaacckk BBrriittiisshh mmeerrcchhaannttmmeenn,, bbuutt ddiieedd iinn OOccttoobbeerr 1l7m77,, aa lloonngg wwiitthh ddrruummmmeerrss aanndd fHifeerrss mmiigghhtt pprroovviiddee mmuussiicc ttoo aattttrraacctt ppootteenn-- aallll bbuutt oonnee ooff hhiis sshhiippmmaatteess,, wwhheenn RReepprriissaall ffoouunnddeerreedd iinn ttiiaall rreeccrruuiittss.. aa ggaallee.. TThhee MMaarriinnee CCoorrppss mmaaiinnttaaiinneedd t thhisis r aracciaial le exxcclulussiviveenneessss uunnttiill WWoorrlldd WWaarr I1I1.. IIttss ssmmaallll ssiizzee eennaabblleedd tthhee CCoorrppss ttoo TTwwoo ootthheerr bbllaacckkss,, IIssaaaacc WWaallkkeerr aanndd aa mmaann kknnoowwnn oonnllyy rreeccrruuiitt eennoouugghh wwhhiitteess ttoo ffiillll iittss rraannkkss,, bbuutt ootthheerr ccoonnssiiddeerraa-- aass OOrraannggee,, eennlliisstteedd aatt PPhhiillaaddeellpphhiiaa's's TTuunn TTaavveerrnn iinn aa ccoomm-- ttiioonnss mmaayy aallssoo hhaavvee hheellppeedd sshhaappee rraacciiaall ppoolliiccyy.. MMaarriinneess ppaannyy rraaiisseedd bbyy RRoobbeerrtt MMuullllaann,. tthhee oowwnneerr ooff tthhee ttaavveerrnn., mmaaiinnttaaiinneedd oorrddeerr oonn sshhiippbbooaarrdd aanndd aatt nnaavvaall iinnssttaallllaattiioonnss,, wwhhiicchh sseerrvveedd aass aa rdectruiitningg rr eennddeezzvvoouuss ffoorr MMaarriinneess.. CCaapp-- aanndd tthhee iiddeeaa ooff bblalckash e xexeercrcisisiinngg aauutthhoorriittyy oovveerr wwhhiittee ttaaiinn MMuullllaann''ss ccoommppaannyy, , ppaarrtt oof aa bbaattttaalliioonn rraaiisseedd bbyy MMaajjoorr ssaaiilloorrss wwoouulldd hhaavvee sshhoocckkeedd aa rraacciiaallllyy ccoonnsscciioouuss AAmmeerriiccaa.. SSaammuueell NNiicchhoollaass,, ccrroosssseedd tthhee DDeellaawwaarree RRiivveerr wwiitthh GGeeoorrggee TThhee MMaarriinnee CCoorrppss,, mmoorreeoovveerr,, hhaadd aa ssiizzaabbllee pprrooppoorrttiioonn ooff WWaasshhiinnggttoonn oonn CChhrriissttmmaass E Evvee 11777766 aanndd ffoouugghhtt tthhee BBrriittiisshh SSoouutthheerrnn ooffffiicceerrss,, pprroodduuccttss ooff aa ssoocciieettyy tthhaatt hhaadd hheelldd bbllaacckk aatt PPrriinncceettoonn.. TThhee wwaarrttiimmee ccoonnttrriibbuuttioionnss o off tthhee bbllaacckk CCoonn-- ssllaavveess.. NNoott eevveenn tthhee NNoorrtthheerrnn vviiccttoorryy iinn ththee C Civivilil WWaarr,, ttiinneennttaall MMaarriinneess,, aanndd tthhee ootthheerr bbllaacckkss wwhhoo sseerrvveedd oonn llaanndd wwhhiicchh eennffoorrcceedd eemmaannccipipaatitoino,n , ccoouuldld bbrriinngg tthhee rraacceess oorr aatt sseeaa,, wweenntt uunnremwvaarddeedd,, ffoorr tthhee a arrmmeedd ffoorrcceess ooff tthhee ttooggeetthheerr iinn tthhee ffoorrmmeerr CCoonnffeeddeerraaccyy.. JJiimm CCrrooww,, tthhee ppeerr-- iinnddeeppeennddeennt t UUnniitteedd SSttaatteess ssoouugghhtt ttoo eexxcdluuddee AAffrriiccaann-- ssoonniiffiiccaattiioonn ooff rraacciiaall sseeggrreeggaattiioonn,, rraappiiddllyy iimmppoosseedd hhiiss ggrriipp AAmmeerriiccaannss.. oonn tthhee eennttiirree nnaattiioonn,, aassssuummiinngg tthhee ffoorrccee ooff llaaww iinn 11889966 FFoorr aa ttiimmee,, aa mmiilliittiiaa bbaacckkeedd bbyy aa ssmmaalll lr reegguulalar rA Armrmyy— - wwhheenn tthhee SSuupprreemmee CCoouurrtt ddeecciiddeedd PPlleessssyy vv.. FFeerrgguussoonn aanndd,, bbootthh mmaaddee u upp e exxclculusisviveleyly o of f wwhihtietse s— -s seeeemmeedd ffoorrccee eennoouugghh iinn eeffffeecctt,, iissoollaatteedd bbllaacckkss ffrroomm wwhhiittee ssoocciieettyy.. ggoovveerrnnmmeenntt aanndd eessttaabblliisshhiinngg tthhee FFaaiirr rreelluuccttaannttllyy ssuuggggeesstteedd rreeccrruuiittiinngg 55,,000000 ooff sseeggrreeggaattiioonn,, aanndd tthhee NNaavvyy ccoouulldd EEmmppllooyymmeenntt PPrraaccttiicceess CCoommmmiissssiioonn bbllaacckkss ffoorr ggeenneerraall sseerrvviiccee.. IInn JJaannuu-- nnoott ddeeffyy tthhee CCoommmmaannddeerr iinn CChhiieeff.. ttoo mmoonniittoorr ccoommpplliiaannccee.. HHee aallssoo iinn-- aarryy 11994422,, wwhhiillee tthhee GGeenneerraall BBooaarrdd SSeeccrreettaarryy KKnnooxx oonn 77 AApprriill 11994422 aadd-- ccrreeaasseedd pprreessssuurree oonn tthhee aarrmmeedd ffoorrcceess ccoonnssiiddeerreedd tthhiiss pprrooppoossaall aanndd rreefflleecctteedd vviisseedd tthhee uunniiffoorrmmeedd lleeaaddeerrss ooff tthhee ttoo pprroovviiddee bbllaacckkss bbeetttteerr ttrreeaattmmeenntt oonn tthhee pprreessiiddeennttiiaall pprreessssuurree bbeehhiinndd NNaavvyy, , MMaarriinnee CCoorrppss,, aanndd CCooaasstt aanndd bbrrooaaddeerr ooppppoorrttuunniittiieess aass hhee hhaadd iitt,, GGeenneerraall HHoollccoommbb vvooiicceedd hhiiss ddeeeepp-- GGuuaarrdd ((aa ccoommppoonneenntt ooff tthhee wwaarrttiimmee pplleeddggeedd dduurriinngg tthhee pprreevviioouuss aauuttuummnn.. llyy ffeelltt mmiissggiivviinnggss.. AAlltthhoouugghh ffuurrtthheerr NNaavvyy)) tthhaatt tthheeyy wwoouulldd hhaavvee ttoo aacc-- TThhee nnaavvaall eessttaabblliisshhmmeenntt hhaadd bbeeeenn ooppppoossiittiioonn ccoouulldd oonnllyy bbee ffuuttiillee,, tthhee cceepptt AAffrriiccaann--AAmmeerriiccaannss ffoorr ggeenneerraall ssllooww ttoo ccaarrrryy oouutt ththee P rPersesidideenntt''ss CCoommmmaannddaanntt ccoommppllaaiinneedd tthhaatt tthhoossee sseerrvviiccee.. SSoommee ssiixx wweeeekkss llaatteerr,, tthhee wwiisshheess. . AAss llaattee aass tthhee ssuummmmeerr ooff bbllaacckkss sseeeekkiinngg ttoo eennlliisstt iinn tthhee MMaarriinnee NNaavvyy DDeeppaarrttmmeenntt ppuubblliiccllyy aann-- 11994411,, SSeeccrreettaarryy ooff tthhee NNaavvyy FFrraannkk CCoorrppss wweerree ""ttrryyiinngg ttoo bbrreeaakk iinnttoo aa nnoouunncceedd tthhaatt tthhee NNaavvyy,, MMaarriinnee KKnnooxx ccoonnttiinnuueedd ttoo ooppppoossee tthhee cclluubb tthhaatt ddooeessnn''tt wwaanntt tthheemm.:"' TThhee CCoorrppss,, aanndd CCooaasstt GGuuaarrdd wwoouulldd eenn-- rreeccrruuiittiinngg ooff AAffrriiccaann--AAmmeerriiccaannss,, eexx-- ""nneeggrroo rraaccee,7" hhee aarrgguueedd,, ""hhaass eevveerryy lliisstt aabboouutt 11,0,00000 A Affrriiccaann--AAmmeerriiccaannss cceepptt aass sstteewwaarrddss iinn ooffffiicceerrss'' mmeesssseess.. ooppppoorrttuunniittyy nnooww ttoo ssaattiissffyy iittss aassppiirr-- eeaacchh mmoonntthh,, bbeeggiinnnniinngg 11 JJuunnee,, aanndd HHee iinnssiisstteedd tthhaatt tthhee rreessttrriiccttiioonnss oonn aattiioonnss ffoorr ccoommbbaatt iinn ththee A Armrmyy,,"" tthhaatt tthhee MMaarriinneess wwoouulldd oorrggaanniizzee aa ooppppoorrttuunniittiieess aaccttuuaallllyy bbeenneeffiitteedd wwhhiicchh hhaadd mmaaiinnttaaiinneedd ffoouurr rreegguullaarr rraacciiaallllyy sseeggrreeggaatteedd 990000--mmaann ddeeffeennssee bbllaacckkss,, ffoorr iinn ootthheerr ssppeecciiaallttiieess tthheeyy rreeggiimmeenntst s ooff bbllaacckk ssoollddiieerrss ssiinnccee bbaattttaalliioonn,, ttrraaiinniinngg tthhee bbllaacckkss rreeccrruuiitt-- wwoouulldd hhaavvee ttoo ccoommppeettee oonn eeqquuaall sshhoorrttllyy aafftteerr tthhee CCiivviill WWaarr.. eedd ffoorr iitt ffrroomm tthhee bbeeggiinnnniinngg ooff bboooott tteerrmmss wwiitthh wwhhiitteess aanndd ccoouulldd nnoott ppooss-- RRoooosseevveelltt ttrriieedd ttoo aavvooiidd aannttaaggoonniizz-- ccaammpp oonnwwaarrdd.. ssiibbllyy ssuucccceeeedd.. SSiinnccee tthhee PPrreessiiddeenntt,, aann iinngg aa rreelluuccttaanntt NNaavvyy,, ooffffeerriinngg aassssuurr-- -C-h#a-nag e Comes to AAssssiissttaanntt SSeeccrreettaarryy ooff tthhee NNaavvyy dduurr-- aannccee tthhaatt iitt nneeeedd nnoott ""ggoo aallll tthhee wwaayy *the- OMayrirne Corps iinngg WWoorrlldd WWaarr II,, ttooookk aa ppeerrssoonnaall iinn-- aatt oonnee ffeellll sswwoooopp"" aanndd rraacciiaallllyy iinnttee-- tteerreesstt iinn tthhee NNaavvyy aanndd MMaarriinnee CCoorrppss,, ggrraattee tthhee ggeenneerraall sseerrvviiccee.. HHee kkeepptt OOnn 2 255 MMaayy 11994422 tthhee CCoommmmaannddaanntt KKnnooxx rreeaalliizzeedd tthheessee sseerrvviicceess wwoouulldd ppuusshhiinngg,, hhoowweevveerr,, ffoorr ggrreeaatteerr ooppppoorr-- ooff tthhee MMaarriinnee CCoorrppss iissssuueedd ffoorrmmaall hhaavvee ttoo lloowweerr tthheeiirr rraacciiaall bbaarrrriieerrss aanndd ttuunniittiieess ffoorr bbllaacckkss wwiitthhiinn tthhee bboouunnddss iinnssttrruuccttiioonnss ttoo bbeeggiinn oonn 11 JJuunnee ttoo 2 Painting by Col Charles H. Waterhouse, USMCR (Ret.) A black American served with the Marines when Gen George Washington fought the Battle of Princeton in January 1777. recruit qualified "colored male charge of the Personnel Section, Di- recruiting proved sluggish. By mid- citizens of the United States between vision of Plans and Policies, at Ma- June, only 63 African-Americans had the ages of 17 and 29, inclusive, for rine Corps headquarters, confessed enlisted and recruiters were becom- service in a combat organization." during an interview in 1968 that the ing desperate, since the training camp Given the nature of American soci- admission of blacks "just scared us to for blacks neared completion. This ety in 1942, that organization would death" Although the draft did not be- lack of immediate results reflected the be racially segregated, the blacks in come the normal source of recruits fact that the Marine Corps, after ex- the ranks being commanded by for all the services until December cluding African-Americans since the whites. Those black volunteers 1942, and the first draftees did not American Revolution, was attempt- whom the Marine Corps accepted enter the Marine Corps until Janu- ing to sign up recruits in a black com- would, as most wartime white ary 1943, Robinson sought help from munity that had no tradition of recruits, enter the reserve for the du- the Selective Service System, where service as Leathernecks. Recruiters ration of the war plus six months, but a black officer of the Army Reserve, found it especially difficult to sign up their active duty would be delayed Lieutenant Colonel Campbell C. the truck drivers, cooks, and typists until the completion of a segregated Johnson, had been called to active to support the battalion, even though training camp, scheduled for 25 July. duty as an administrator. Johnson in- black educators assured the Marine Some of the new recruits would serve dicated that he would do what he Corps that an adequate pool of such as specialists, everything from cooks could and joked about passing the specialists existed. When a recruiter to clerks, who would see to the day- word that Marines die young, so that in Boston told Obie Hall that he to-day operation of a racially exclu- only those African-Americans will- could enter the Marine Corps im- sive training camp. ing to risk their lives would join. mediately if he had the right The task of forming and training Robinson acknowledged that the specialty, Hall said he was a truck even one battalion of African- Corps "got some awfully good driver. Although he "no more could Americans seemed a formidable Negroes" over the years and believed drive a truck than the man in the challenge, for it involved giving raw that Johnson was at least partly moon," he wanted to go and had no recruits their basic skills, further hon- responsible. hope of passing himself off as a cook ing the fighting edge, and finally Despite Johnson's interest in the or typist. creating a combat team. General Ray black Marines, the Corps had to rely The number of African-Americans A. Robinson, in 1942 a colonel in throughout 1942 on volunteers, and who shared Hall's enthusiasm slow- 3 ly increased. Some of those who Selective Service System, the Marine adhering to the policy of segregation, joined up looked on serving in the Corps reaffirmed its commitment to white noncommissioned officers Marine Corps as an opportunity de- racial segregation, but it proposed to would be removed as promptly and nied blacks for a century and a half. carry out this policy without chan- completely as feasible from the newly Others saw this service as a personal neling blacks into meaningless as- organized black units, forcing the challenge. By the end of September, signments that had little to do with Marine Corps to create in a matter about half of the 1,200 recruits need- winning the war. Lacking recent ex- of months a fully functioning cadre ed to man the battalion and render perience with blacks, the Marines of black sergeants and corporals. administrative, housekeeping, and sought to profit from the example of At best, the Commandant had transportation support had enlisted. the Army, which avoided placing mixed feelings about the black The Presidential decision on 1 De- blacks in charge of whites. Applying recruits whom the Roosevelt ad- cember 1942 to make the Selective this lesson, General Holcomb in ministration had forced on him. "All Service System the normal source of March 1943 issued Letter of Instruc- Marines;' he proclaimed, "are entitled recruits for all the services ensured tion 421, which declared it "essential to the same rights and privileges un- that, beginning in January 1943, that in no case shall there be colored der Navy Regulations," but even as 1,000 African-Americans would enter noncommissioned officers senior to he announced this idealistic princi- the Marine Corps each month. This white men in the same unit, and ple, he felt compelled to remind the influx resulted from the fact that the desirable that few, if any, be of the African-Americans that they should draft law prohibited racial discrimi- same rank." LOl 421 was a classified "conduct themselves with propriety nation in its administration; in prac- document and did not become pub- and become a real credit to the tical terms, this meant that the Army lic during the war, but the African- Corps" and to require periodic and Navy could establish quotas for American Marine who could not reports on their status. The black black recruits but not arbitrarily ex- earn promotion because a white non- Marines clearly faced a struggle for clude them. commissioned officer blocked his acceptance within the Corps before While preparing to absorb the path immediately felt its impact. To they got the opportunity to fight the African-Americans provided by the remove this racial roadblock while Japanese. Cpl Edgar R. Huff drills a platoon of recruits at the Mont ford Huff became a legend among the Marines who were trained Point Camp. He enlisted in the Marine Corps in June 1942. here. He retired in 1972 as a sergeant major at New River. National Archives Photo 127-N-5337 4 Service in the Marine Corps brought men like Obie Hall, who enlisted from the cities of the North where race relations were somewhat relaxed, into contact with segregation at its harshest. Hall received a sleeping-car ticket for the rail jour- ney from Boston to the training site in North Carolina, and all went well until he reached Washington, D.C., where he was ordered out of his assigned berth. A porter, also an African-American, explained that Hall had reached the "black line" south of which rail travel was segregated. The porter, in defiance of the law and social custom of that Department of Defense Photo (USMC) 5344 Sgt Gilbert H. "Hashmark" Johnson, a veteran of service in both the Army and time, found an empty compartment Navy, glares at the boots in his recruit platoon. He became a Marine in 1942. that Hall occupied for the rest of the trip. Some 18 months later, John R. nor much of American society was mation projects. As the number of Griffin of Chicago did not find a ready for such a gesture of racial African-American Marines increased, sympathetic porter willing to break amity. they spilled over into the old CCC the rules; at Washington he had to camp. The Montford Point Camp con- transfer to a Jim Crow car, "hot, Railroad tracks divided white resi- sisted at first of a headquarters build- dirty, crowded (with babies crying ing, a chapel, two warehouses, a dents from black in segregated Jack- and old men drinking and [black} mess hall, a dispensary, a steam sonville. Suddenly, hundreds of Marines discussing the fun they had generating plant, a motor pool, African-American Marines on liberty on leave)." appeared on the white side of the quarters and recreational facilities for tracks, looking for entertainment. At Segregation prevailed at the Ma- the white enlisted men who initially first, white businessmen reacted to rine Barracks, New River, North staffed the operation, a barber shop, this sight by bolting their doors. Even Carolina — soon redesignated Camp and 120 green-painted prefabricated the bus depot shut down until some- Lejeune—where the African- huts, each capable of accommodat- one realized that the liberty parties Americans would train, and in the ing 16 recruits, though twice that might well find other North Caroli- nearby town of Jacksonville. For the number were sometimes jammed into na towns like New Bern or Wilming- black recruits, the Marine Corps es- them, pending the completion of new tablished a separate cantonment, the barracks. The original camp also ton more attractive than Jacksonville, and the ticket agents went back to Montford Point Camp, in western- boasted a snack bar that dispensed most Camp Lejeune. At least one beer, a small club for the white work. Marine veteran, Lieutenant General officers, and a theater, one wing of Getting out of Jacksonville became James L. Underhill, suggested in which was converted into a library. easier, but returning to camp from retrospect that the Corps made a mis- As the black Marines cleared the the town proved difficult on a Jim take in pushing them "off to one corn- land around the camp, they encoun- Crow bus line. Drivers gave priority er;' for doing so reinforced the belief, tered clouds of mosquitoes, a varie- to white passengers, as state law re- accurate though it was, that blacks ty of snakes, and the tracks of an quired, and restricted black pas- were not truly welcome. The Marine occasional bear, if not the animal it- sengers to the rear of the bus, unless Corps, Underhill believed, "should self. To the north of the original site, whites needed the space. Since the have dressed them up in blue uni- across a creek, lay Camp Knox, oc- two races formed separate lines at the forms and put them behind a band cupied during the Great Depression bus stop, drivers tended to take only and marched them down Fifth of the 1930s by a contingent of the whites on board and leave the black Avenue" to show their pride in being Civilian Conservation Corps, an Marines standing there as the dead- Marines and their acceptance by the agency that put jobless young men line for returning to Montford Point Corps. At the time, as Underhill sure- to work, under military supervision, drew nearer. When this happened, ly realized, neither the Marine Corps on public improvements and recla- angry black Marines, at the risk of 5 The 'Great White Father' olonel Samuel A. Woods, Jr., Republic and China, attended the Naval launched the training program War College, and headed the Marine for black Marines at Montford Corps correspondence schools at the (originally Mumford) Point. At this Marine Barracks, Quantico, Virginia. time, based on the Army's practices, the The colonel's calmness and fairness Marine Corps believed that officers born earned him the respect of the blacks he in the South were uniquely suited to commanded. He cultivated a paternalis- commanding African-Americans, and tic relationship with his men and the colonel fit the pattern, since he hailed emerged, according to one African- from South Carolina. Born at Arlington, American veteran of the Montford Point he graduated from The Citadel, South Camp, as "the Great White Father of Carolina's military college, and in 1906 everybody," trying to ease the impact of National Archives Photo 127-N-9511 accepted a commission in the Corps. He segregation on the morale of his troops, Col Samuel A. Woods, Jr., established served in Haiti and Cuba but arrived in though he accepted the separation of the the Montford Point Camp and also France as World War I was ending. Af- races, and insisting that the black Ma- served as the first commanding officer of terward he saw duty in the Dominican rines exhibit self-pride and competence. the 51st Defense Battalion (Composite). violence from the local police, might white fellow Marines. Obie Hall re- instead of attending a show being commandeer a bus, remove the called that the men of Montford staged especially for them by black driver, and take it to the gate nearest Point tried to look their sharpest, es- performers. When Colonel Woods Jacksonville, where the transit com- pecially when in the presence of heard of the impromptu field day, he pany could retrieve it on the next white Marines. "They really put that investigated, learned of the ill- morning. The white officer in com- chest out," he said. Pride in appear- considered action by the officer of the mand at Montford Point, Colonel ance had beneficial effects, for one day, and made sure the African- Samuel A. Woods, Jr., took steps to white Marine remarked that, Americans attended the perform- ensure that the black Marines could although he only saw blacks when ance. return safely to Montford Point they were on liberty because of the One incident painfully reminded without risking arrest. He sent his segregation on Camp Lejeune, "they the African-Americans of their battalion's trucks into town to pick always looked sharp." The white mili- second-class status in the Marine up the men and assigned white non- tary police remained unimpressed, Corps, indeed throughout a Jim commissioned officers from the staff however. They tended to share the Crow society. A boxing show staged at Montford Point to the military racial attitudes of their civilian coun- at the Montford Point Camp attract- police patrols that kept order in the terparts, and the persistent hostility ed a distinguished guest, Major town. The NCOs detailed by Colonel generated intense resentment among General Henry L. Larsen, who had Woods helped deter local authorities the African-American Marines. taken command of Camp Lejeune af- from making arbitrary arrests of Knowledge that they would have ter returning from the South Pacific. black Marines. As black noncommis- to overcome racism to gain the right During an informal talk, he made sioned officers became available, one to serve created a feeling of solidarity what he considered a humorous re- of them accompanied each patrol, among black Marines. At times, they mark, but his audience interpreted it though unarmed and without au- could invoke this unity to right a as an insult. According to one of the thority to arrest or detain white wrong, as happened after the officer black Marines who was there, the Marines. of the day at Montford Point, an- general said something to the effect Although race also affected rela- gered by what he considered raucous that when he returned from overseas tionships among Marines, especially behavior during a comedy being he had seen women Marines and dog during the early months of the Mont- shown at the camp movie theater, Marines, but when he saw "you peo- ford Point Camp, instances of the ra- had the black audience take their ple wearing our uniform," he knew cial harassment of black Marines be- buckets — these utilitarian posses- there was a war on. The off-hand came increasingly less frequent. The sions at the time were serving as comment may have served, however, improved conditions resulted in part seats—and put them over their to bring the men of Montford Point from Montford Point's isolation, but heads. The recently appointed black even closer together. it also reflected the efforts of the drill instructors reacted by ordering Oddly enough, a white officer African-Americans to impress their their Marines to clean the barracks came the closest to capturing the iso- 6 lation felt by blacks in segregated American defense battalion autho- forms since the Revolutionary War, North Carolina. Robert W. Troup, in rized in 1942, Troup doubled as began with boot camp and had as its peacetime a musician and composer recreation officer, organizing baseball ultimate objective the creation of a who had played alongside black per- and basketball teams, arranging the composite defense battalion. This formers, accepted a wartime commis- construction of sports facilities, and combat unit would be racially sion and reported to Montford Point, staging shows using talent available segregated, commanded by white where he made a lasting impression. at Montford Point. Perhaps the most officers, and with an initial comple- One of the African-American Ma- popular performer was Finis Hender- ment of white noncommissioned rines, Gilbert H. Johnson, considered son, a private who had sung and tap- officers, who would serve only until him a "topnotch musician, a very de- danced in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer black replacements became available. cent sort of officer;' and another, films. As the star of one of Troup's Colonel Woods had to start from Obie Hall, described him as "the shows, Henderson sang "Jacksonville" scratch, with no cadre of experienced sharpest cat I've ever seen in my life." while stage hands threw bits of African-Americans except for a hand- Bobby Troup's song "Jacksonville," brown paper into the air flow from ful with prior service in the Army or the unofficial anthem of men of a pair of electric fans to simulate the Navy. When boot training began, the Montford Point, included the heart- dust blowing down the street of that colonel commanded both the camp felt plea: much-despised town. In December itself and the 51st Defense Battalion Take me away from Jackson- 1944, Troup took command of the (Composite) being formed there. ville, 'cause I've had my fill and black 6th Depot Company —the se- Lieutenant Colonel Theodore A. that's no lie. cond unit with that designation — Holdahl —an enlisted veteran of Take me away from Jackson- which deployed to Saipan and han- World War I who served as an officer ville, keep me away from Jack- dled supplies at the base there. in the Far East and Central sonville until I die. Jacksonville America —had charge of recruit stood still, while the rest of the training. Some two dozen white world passed by. The training program at Montford officers, a number of them recently While assigned to the 51st Defense Point, which signaled the first ap- commissioned second lieutenants like Battalion (Composite), the African- pearance of blacks in Marine uni- Bobby Troup, and 90 white enlisted Marines, directed the training. The Bobby Troup, a musician turned wartime Marine Corps officer, staged shows at Montford Point using talent such as Private Finis Henderson, a professional singer enlisted men formed the Special En- and dancer before enlisting, and Curtis Institute graduate Sgt Joe Wilder, not shown. listed Staff, which initially carried Department of Defense Photo (USMC) 6797 out assignments that varied from clerk or typist to drill instructor. The Marine Corps screened the Special Enlisted Staff to exclude anyone op- posed to the presence of blacks in the ranks. One of the Montford Point Marines suggested that, in the normal pressures of boot camp, a break- down in the screening process could have doomed the program, for racial hostility would have reinforced the usual harassment visited on every recruit, white or black. "We would all have left the first week;' he joked. "Some of us, probably, the first night:' In keeping with Marine Corps policy, Woods and Holdahl had to replace the whites of the Special En- listed Staff with black noncommissioned officers as rapidly as possible. The command structure at Montford Point tried to identify the best of the African-American recruits and place 7 These Marines of the first platoon to enter recruit training at instructors. From left are Mortimer A. Cox; Arnold R. Bostick; Montford Point were promoted to private first class a month Edgar R. Davis, Jr.; Gilbert H. "Hashmark" Johnson and Edgar before they completed boot camp and became assistant drill R. Huff (their drill instructors); and Charles E. Allen. them on a fast track to positions of oral, provided a final winnowing of them along. When tackling the more responsibility in boot camp and in the candidates. The first promotions, complex subjects, like optical fire the battalion itself. The general clas- to private first class, took place ear- control or radar, the African- sification test, administered as a part ly in November 1942, a month be- Americans attended courses offered of the initial processing, grouped fore the men selected to sew on their by the Army at nearby Camp Davis, those who took the test into five single stripe had completed boot North Carolina, and elsewhere. categories, with the highest scores in camp. Lacking a cadre of black veterans, Category I, and afforded one tool for The problem of classifying recruits the Marine Corps had to advance the predicting the ability of the new Ma- demonstrated that the Montford best of the African-American recruits rines. Unfortunately, those black Ma- Point Camp required skilled adminis- into the ranks of noncommissioned rines who administered the test and trators. Creating an administrative officers so as to achieve the goal of interpreted the results were them- infrastructure proved difficult, for the a segregated defense battalion com- selves on-the-job trainees. Conse- comparatively few volunteers who manded by white officers but with no quently, the test results could at times stepped forward in the summer and white enlisted men in any capacity. prove misleading, with college gradu- fall of 1942 included few clerks and The promotion of black Marines de- ates sometimes showing up in typists. Enough African-American pended on ability, as revealed by the Categories IV or even V. Drill in- recruits would have to learn the mys- initial classification tests, ratings from structors, initially whites with vary- teries of Marine Corps administra- superiors, the results of formal ex- ing experience in the Marine Corps, tion to fill the necessary billets, but aminations, and the existence of had to rely on their own powers of racial segregation prevented them vacancies that would not violate poli- observation to determine which of from taking courses alongside whites. cy by placing a black Marine in the African-American recruits had For the present, white instructors charge of whites. As the number of the aptitude to exercise effective would teach administrative subjects African-American Marines increased leadership and master the necessary at Montford Point, until black Ma- and training activity accelerated, technology. Formal tests, written or rines could master the skills and pass some of the recently promoted pri- 8