The Restorative Potential of Sub-Aquatic Environments

364 Pages·2016·3.65 MB·English

by  D. L. Cracknell

This copy of the thesis has been supplied on the condition that anyone who consults it is
understood to recognise that its copyright rests with its author and that no quotation
from the thesis and no information derived from it may be published without the
author’s prior consent. Requesting consent, please email deborah.cracknell@national-
aquarium.co.uk or [email protected] .

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The Restorative Potential of Public
Aquariums: Psychological and Physiological
Effects of Viewing Sub-Aquatic
Environments

by
Deborah Louise Cracknell

A thesis submitted to Plymouth University in partial fulfilment for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

School of Psychology (Faculty of Health and Human Sciences)
Plymouth University, United Kingdom

In collaboration with the National Marine Aquarium

October 2016
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“All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others” – Animal Farm, George
Orwell (1945).
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Abstract
The Restorative Potential of Public Aquariums: Psychological and Physiological Effects
of Viewing Sub-Aquatic Environments

Deborah Louise Cracknell

The role of natural environments, especially ‘green space’, in promoting human health
and well-being is well-researched. However, less is known about the benefits of ‘blue space’
(e.g. the coast) or ‘managed’ nature (e.g. zoos). In this thesis, six studies investigated the
restorative potential of sub-aquatic settings, specifically public aquariums and the biological
diversity within them. Studies 1 and 2 investigated preferences for, affective responses to, and
the restorative potential of, five built and natural settings (i.e. built, green space, blue space,
natural underwater and public aquariums). Using the same measures, Study 3 focused solely on
people’s responses to aquarium exhibits, sub-categorised by geographic region, level of species
richness and abundance, and taxonomic group. Study 4 examined behavioural, physiological
and psychological responses to one aquarium exhibit during three stages of restocking. Finally,
to establish how perceptions of species richness and abundance influenced well-being
outcomes, people viewed and evaluated either one (Study 5) or two (Study 6) large aquarium
exhibits. These studies found that natural sub-aquatic and aquarium settings were as preferred,
and perceived as potentially restorative, as green space environments, and different exhibits
elicited different responses: ratings were higher for tropical exhibits (vs. temperate), high
abundance (vs. low) and vertebrates (vs. invertebrates), although findings for species richness
were mixed. Within one exhibit, higher stocking levels resulted in increased attention and
interest, greater improvements in mood, and some physiological evidence of relaxation (e.g.
decreased heart rate). Broad levels of marine life could be distinguished but estimates of actual
numbers were poor. Viewing one or two exhibits tended to improve mood, decrease arousal and
be perceived as restorative; any differences between the two exhibits were more evident when
both had been viewed. Overall, findings suggest that engaging with different types of managed
nature may provide valuable perceived human health and well-being benefits.
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Table of Contents
COPYRIGHT STATEMENT…………………………………………………………... 1
ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………..……......... 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………………….. 7
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………. 13
LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………………….. 14
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………….….. 17
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION ………………………………………………….……… 18
APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………… 250
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………….. 287
BOUND COPIES OF PUBLICATIONS…………………………………………….…. 316

CHAPTER 1 – General Introduction
1. Overview………………………………………………………………………. 22
1.1 Nature and Health……………………………………………………………… 24
1.1.1 The Economic Cost of Mental Ill Health……………………………... 24
1.1.2 Mental Health and Well-being, Nature and Restoration……………… 27
1.1.3 Restoration ‘Theories’…………………………………………….….. 31
1.2 Restorative Settings: Gaps in the Literature…………………………………… 35
1.2.1 From Green to Blue Space……………………………………………. 36
1.2.2 Alternative Restorative Settings………………………………………. 39
1.2.3 Landscape Features: Biodiversity…………………………………….. 45
1.3 Biodiversity……………………………………………………………………. 51
1.3.1 Animal Preferences…………………………………………………… 51
1.3.2 ‘Managed’ Marine Life: A Brief History of Aquariums……..………. 53
1.3.3 Aquariums, Health and Well-being……………………………..……. 55
1.3.4 Preferences for Marine Biodiversity………………………………….. 62
1.4 Overview of Thesis……………………………………………………………. 66
1.4.1 Aims of Thesis………………………………………………………... 66
1.4.2 Outline of Studies…………………………………………………….. 66
1.4.3 Discussion and Conclusions………………………………………….. 68

CHAPTER 2 – Preferences for Natural and Human-made Sub-aquatic (Aquarium)
Scenes
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………..... 69
2.1.1 Overview……………………………………………………………… 69
2.1.2 Measuring Restoration and Perceived Restorativeness………………. 72
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2.1.3 Use of Photographic Images………………………………………….. 76
2.2 Study 1 and 2: Comparing Natural and Human-made Sub-aquatic
Environments with Urban, Green and Blue Space
2.2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………… 78
2.2.2 Methods……………………………………………………………….. 81
2.2.2.1 Development of Photo Sets………………………………… 81
2.2.2.2 Participants…………………………………………………. 83
2.2.2.3 Design and Procedure……………………………………… 83
2.2.2.4 Measures……………………………………………………. 84
2.2.3 Results………………………………………………………………… 85
2.2.3.1 Study 1: Comparing Natural Sub-aquatic Environments
with Urban, Green and Blue Space………………………… 85
2.2.3.2 Study 2: Comparing Human-made Sub-aquatic
Environments with Urban, Green and Blue Space………… 90
2.2.4 Brief Summary……………………………………………... 92
2.3 Study 3: Comparing Responses to Different Types of Aquarium Exhibit
2.3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………… 93
2.3.2 Methods……………………………………………………………….. 95
2.3.2.1 Development of Photo Set………………………………….. 95
2.3.2.2 Participants…………………………………………………. 98
2.3.2.3 Design, Procedure and Measures…………………………... 98
2.3.3 Results………………………………………………………………… 98
2.3.4 Brief Summary……………………………………………………….. 105
2.4 Discussion……………………………………………………………………... 106
2.4.1 Summary of Main Findings…………………………………………... 106
2.4.2 Limitations……………………………………………………………. 110
2.4.3 Conclusions…………………………………………………………… 112

CHAPTER 3 – Psychological, Physiological and Behavioural Responses to
Different Levels of the Same Type of Aquarium Exhibit
3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………..... 114
3.1.1 Overview……………………………………………………………… 114
3.1.2 Moving from Lab to Field: Photo Study to Real Aquarium………….. 115
3.1.3 Current Research………………...……………………………………. 118
3.2 Study 4: Psychological, Physiological and Behavioural Responses to
Different Levels of the Same Exhibit Type
3.2.1 Methods……………………………………………………………….. 121
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3.2.1.1 Experimental Site…………………………………………... 121
3.2.1.2 Part A – Behavioural Observations………………………… 125
3.2.1.2.1 Participants……………………………………. 125
3.2.1.2.2 Procedure and Measures……………………… 125
3.2.1.3 Part B – Psychological and Physiological Measures………. 126
3.2.1.3.1 Participants…………………………………… 126
3.2.1.3.2 Procedure and Measures……………………… 126
3.2.1.4 Statistical Analysis………………………………………… 130
3.2.1.4.1 Part A – Behavioural Observations…….…….. 130
3.2.1.4.2 Part B – Psychological and Physiological
Measures……………………………………… 131
3.2.2 Results………………………………………………………………… 132
3.2.2.1 Part A – Behavioural Observations………………………… 132
3.2.2.2 Part B – Psychological and Physiological Measures………. 132
3.2.2.2.1 Evaluation Statements………………………… 132
3.2.2.2.2 Blood Pressure………………………………... 135
3.2.2.2.3 Heart Rate…………………………………….. 135
3.2.2.2.4 Mood………………………………………….. 140
3.3 Discussion…………………………………………………………………….... 146
3.3.1 Summary of Main Findings…………………………………………... 146
3.3.2 Limitations and Future Work…………………………………………. 150
3.3.3 Conclusions…………………………………………………………… 153

CHAPTER 4 – Biodiversity, Perceived Biodiversity and Human Well-being: The
Importance of Context and Comparative Judgements
4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………. 155
4.1.1 Overview……………………………………………………………… 155
4.1.2 Perceptions of Biodiversity…………………………………………… 157
4.1.3 Current Research………………...……………………………………. 163
4.2 Study 5: Perceptions of Species Richness and Abundance, and Associated
Well-being Outcomes, when Viewing a Single Exhibit
4.2.1 Methods……………………………………………………………….. 166
4.2.1.1 Preparatory Work…………………………………………... 166
4.2.1.1.1 Questionnaire Development………….............. 166
4.2.1.1.2 Estimates of Species Richness and
Abundance……………………………………. 167
4.2.1.2 Participants…………………………………………………. 168
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4.2.1.3 Procedure…………………………………………………… 168
4.2.1.4 Measures……………………………………………………. 169
4.2.1.4.1 Perceptions of Stocking Levels…………… 169
4.2.1.4.2 Perceived Restorativeness, Restorative
Potential and Well-being Outcomes…………. 170
4.2.1.4.3 Estimates and Actual Marine Life Knowledge,
and Frequency of Aquarium Visits…………… 173
4.2.1.5 Data Preparation……………………………………………. 173
4.2.1.6 Statistical Analysis…………………………………………. 174
4.2.2 Results………………………………………………………………… 175
4.2.2.1 Perceptions of Stocking Levels…………………..……........ 175
4.2.2.2 Psychological Well-being………………………………..… 177
4.2.2.2.1 Mood and Arousal……………………...…….. 177
4.2.2.2.2 Perceived Restorativeness, Reflection and
Restoration, Restorative Potential and
Attachment…………………………………… 178
4.2.2.3 Relationships Between Well-being Outcomes and
Perceptions of Biodiversity, and Other Exploratory
Analyses……………………………………………….….... 182
4.2.2.4 Summary…………………………………………………… 185
4.3 Study 6: Perceptions of Species Richness and Abundance, and Associated
Well-being Outcomes, when Viewing Two Exhibits
4.3.1 Methods……………………………………………………………….. 186
4.3.1.1 Preparatory Work…………………………………………... 186
4.3.1.1.1 Questionnaire Development………………….. 186
4.3.1.1.2 Estimates of Species Richness and
Abundance……………………………………. 187
4.3.1.2 Participants…………………………………………………. 187
4.3.1.3 Procedure…………………………………………………… 187
4.3.1.4 Measures…………………………………………………… 190
4.3.1.4.1 Perceptions of Stocking Levels…………… 190
4.3.1.4.2 Perceived Restorativeness, Restorative
Potential and Well-being Outcomes……..…… 190
4.3.1.4.3 Estimates and Actual Marine Life Knowledge,
and Frequency of Aquarium Visits…………… 191
4.3.1.5 Data Preparation……………………………………………. 191
4.3.1.6 Statistical Analysis…………………………………………. 191
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