The Relations between Turkey and Russia in the 2000s

24 Pages·2012·0.12 MB·English

The Relations between Turkey and
Russia in the 2000s
Fatih ÖZBAY*
Abstract Introduction
Turkey and Russia are working to transform With their historical, ethnic
their century-long geopolitical disputes into
and cultural ties, and geographical
a geo-economic partnership. From the 2000s
positioning, Turkey and Russia occupy
onwards, there have been rapid improvements
in the political-diplomatic relations between a highly significant position in terms of
the two countries. In recent years, Turkey-Russia maintaining global and regional peace,
relations have been gradually transforming
as well as development and cooperation
thanks to the constructive and peaceful
in their respective regions. The relations
approaches embraced by Ankara and Moscow.
Ankara and Moscow’s approach to international between Turkey and Russia span over
problems generally tends to exhibit overlaps or 500 years. Throughout this period, their
similarities. For many years both sides have
economic, political, historic and cultural
expressed their desire for bilateral relations not
to remain merely economic, also encompassing bearings have impacted each other, and
regional and global interests, and being based the other countries and communities with
on shared trust and respect. Relations between
which they have entered into relations.
Turkey and Russia are often described through
The present day relations between Turkey
various terms such as “strategic.” Nonetheless,
the existence of some problems between the two and Russia are the product of various
countries cannot be denied, even though they phases that have followed a meandering
are not explicitly voiced. The general structure
path. Periodic instances of conflict and
of Turkish-Russian relations implies that in the
cooperation characterize this historical
coming years, cooperation and competition will
remain as determining factors. past, which have left deep marks in the
social memory of both countries.
Key Words
Due to the erratic nature of their
relations, both Turkey and Russia have
Turkish-Russian relations, strategic strived to act most vigilantly in order to
partnership, cooperation, competition. obtain maximum benefit, even during
the highly restrictive atmosphere of the
* Assistant Prof., Department of Humanities and
Social Sciences, Istanbul Technical University. Cold War. The ground breaking changes
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PERCEPTIONS, Autumn 2011, Volume XVI, Number 3, pp. 69-92.
Fatih Özbay
in international politics following the played an important role in reshaping
Cold War were the key factors leading to perceptions of one another. The “win-
the eradication of the taboos and barriers lose” perspective of the Cold War period
characterizing Turkish-Russian relations. has now been replaced by the “win-
It is possible to historically examine win” equation. This substantial turn in
post-Cold War relations between the relations has given way to stability, trust
two countries within the time frames of and welfare, which in turn have had a
the 1990s and 2000s. During the 1990s, direct and positive impact on lives of
despite increasing economic relations, the Turkish and Russian populations.
both countries prioritized competition For this reason, it can be argued that
in the fields of energy, ethnic problems both societies are supportive of this
and regional balance of power; hence, convergence between Turkey and Russia.
they were unable to take full advantage
The most obvious examples of this
of this period. Therefore, in terms of
development include rapidly expanding
politics, the 1990s can be classified as the
trade volume, top-level visits between
“lost years” in Turkey-Russia relations.
the leaders of both countries, removal
The second period encompasses the
of visas, and signing of cooperation
2000s, which is the current phase.
agreements in the nuclear field. The
During these years, both countries have
expansion of diplomatic relations has also
come to terms with the negative impact
facilitated the development of relations
of destructive rivalry and the positive
in other fields. This state of affairs has
value of increasing economic relations, greatly contributed to the eradication of
which today have reached record rates. the mutually held problems of negative
With this transformed vision, the two perception and mistrust, both products
countries have been seeking out new ways of the Imperial and Cold War periods.
for improving trust relations. Therefore, The purpose of this article is to examine
in terms of politics and diplomacy, this Turkey-Russia relations in the 2000s and
second phase can be identified as the analyse their present standing.
“maturation” period of Turkish-Russian
relations.1 Winds of Change in Foreign
From the 2000s onwards, there Policy
have been rapid improvements in the
political-diplomatic relations between When speaking of Turkish-Russian
the two countries. The course of these relations, the subject must be evaluated
relations has changed in accordance in terms of the new foreign policies
with global developments, which have adopted by both countries in recent
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The Relations between Turkey and Russia in the 2000s
years, and especially as part of Turkey’s expressed how Turkey sees Russia as “a
new foreign policy vision. Equally, this very important partner, an influential
change can be seen as a product of the world power, and a country that holds a
restructuring processes of Turkish and key role in terms of regional cooperation.”
Russian diplomacies. Turkey’s multi- Relations with Russia are primary and
dimensional foreign policy approach inseparable aspects of Turkish foreign
is gaining influence. As one of the policy.5
requirements of Turkey’s active foreign
policy which is based on increasing its
Turkish-Russian relations
economic relations with other countries,
began accelerating during the
regional security, stability and zero
presidency of Vladimir Putin
problems with neighbours, Russia is
in Russia and with the election
inevitably positioned in the higher ranks
of the agenda within this scope. of the Justice and Development
Party in Turkey.
Turkish-Russian relations began
accelerating during the presidency of
Vladimir Putin in Russia and with the
Turkey’s recently upheld new foreign
election of the Justice and Development
policy approach is reflected within
Party (AK Party) in Turkey.2 The AK party
Turkish-Russian relations and has opened
came to power at the end of 2002 and the
the way for collaborative opportunities
first signs of their reformed position were
in solving regional problems. Likewise,
apparent in the party program, where it
it has provided the necessary motivation
is stated: “The relations established with
and aspiration to further develop
the Russian Federation, Central Asia
relations with Russia. Turkey believes in
and the Caucasus will be based not on
the importance of applying policies of
competition but friendly cooperation”.3
good neighbourliness and zero problems
Through this new perspective aimed
along its border regions, and also views
at multiplying relations in the fields of
Russia from this perspective. Within
tourism, economy, energy and regional
Turkey’s current policy approach, the
security, the exchanges between the
improvement of both political and
two countries have deepened. Prime
Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has economic relations with Russia is a
defined Russia as important in terms of priority. At the same time, Russia is seen
trade, investment, tourism and energy as a vital partner in terms of achieving
security, which also points to the new stability and regional peace in Eurasia.6
policy transformations.4 Moreover, Alongside Greece, Iran and Iraq, Russia
Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu has no longer remains among the potential
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Fatih Özbay
threat factors listed in Turkey’s National and has showed much less hesitation in
Security Policy Document, which taking steps in accord with Ankara.
is widely accepted as Turkey’s secret
In the previous framework of
constitution and publicly known as
Turkish-Russian relations, Moscow
the “red book.” This development is an
evaluated relations with Turkey not in
important expression of Turkey’s new
terms of global policies, but regional
foreign policy determination.7
policies, attributing to them secondary
importance. On the contrary, Ankara
Turkey and Russia’s political viewed its northern neighbour, once
expectations from one another a superpower, of primary significance
may not always overlap with in terms of both regional and global
policies. In this new period, however,
their individual capacities to
there is a change in Russia’s approach
meet these expectations.
as well. Through an active, peaceful
and constructive foreign policy, Turkey
Turkey and Russia’s political has achieved growing significance
expectations from one another may not in the Middle East, Islamic World,
always overlap with their individual Balkans, Caucasus and Africa, which
capacities to meet these expectations. is increasingly drawing the interest and
When one or both of the sides are attention of Russia.
aware of this fact and take initiative
Russia is a great regional and global
accordingly, it can provide rather
power in terms of its natural resources,
important benefits and contributions
economic, political and military strength.
both to the individual country and the
When examined from the Russian front,
totality of the relations. It is possible to
it is observable that with the presidency of
state that this mode of action precisely
Vladimir Putin, a new approach is being
characterizes Turkey’s approach towards assumed, which favours collaborations
Russia in recent years. Had Moscow with regional and international actors
misinterpreted this approach or not as long as they do not conflict with
reciprocated it accordingly, serious national interests. In this same period,
problems could have surfaced. However, Turkey, too, has been pursuing a foreign
the new developments are a sign that policy of zero problems, dynamic and
Russian perceptions of Turkish foreign multidimensional relations, which has
policy are much more encouraging led both countries to grow closer to
compared to 10 years ago. Russia has one another. After Putin was elected as
been positive about Turkey’s new stance Russian State President, he made the
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The Relations between Turkey and Russia in the 2000s
statement that “As long as there is no is positioning itself to become a future
conflict of interest, we will cooperate energy hub and Moscow is aware that
with everyone”.8 During the Putin this will not just upset their interests
period, high price increases in raw natural as a competitor, but will also present
resources has led to the strengthening of new opportunities. Therefore, from the
the Russian economy and the country current perspective of Russia, Turkey
has been assuming a much more active has become an economic and political
foreign policy. In this framework, partner that cannot be ignored.
Russia has been trying to establish
new relational networks in regions of
Economic, Political and
influence and concern, while also trying
Cultural Relations
to return to the spheres of interest and
authority that had been abandoned with
Turkey and Russia accumulated
the disintegration of the Soviet Union.9
quite important experiences in trade and
As a result, it is possible to state that
economic cooperation towards the end of
Russia no longer perceives Turkey as a
the 20th century. Some of the main factors
rival and a threat, as was the case in the
accelerating this process include mutual
1990s.
economic interests, scientific-technical
potential and Turkey’s rich experiences
From the current perspective of
in shaping the market economy. The
Russia, Turkey has become an
expanding trade volume between the two
economic and political partner
countries has led both sides to emphasize
that cannot be ignored. initiatives that improve collaborations
around shared economic interests.
By increasing and diversifying trade
Russia is discomforted by US
and economic relations, Turkey and
policies on the Middle East and wishes
Russia have created the opportunity for
to see Turkey as an ally in this region,
solving current and prospective political
where Russia held close relations
problems more easily and in a manner
during the Soviet period. Due to the
fitting the conditions of both countries.
hegemonic policies observed after 9/11,
the US is currently working to isolate In 2008, the trade volume between
the hostility surfacing in the Islamic the two countries reached record height
world. Hence, for Russia, close relations at 38 billion dollars. There are plans to
with Turkey, which is the strongest and further increase this figure to 100 billion
most influential country in the Islamic dollars.10 This Turkish-held aspiration
world, holds special importance. Turkey was expressed during the visit of Russian
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Fatih Özbay
State President Dmitry Medvedev to fields of opportunity were also formed
Ankara between August 11-13, 2010. during this time. Above all others were
The possibilities for its realization general economic relations. Additionally,
will surface with time. Although due there was the “Blue Stream” natural gas
to the economic crisis and problems pipeline, cooperation in fighting against
experienced with customs, the trade terrorism, military-technical relations
volume in 2009 decreased to 22 billion and search for collaboration in Eurasia.12
dollars, it reached to 27 billion dollars in
2010. In 2009, over 3 million Russian
The core factor leading to the
tourists visited Turkey. The share of the
transformation from rivalry to
Turkish construction sector carrying
cooperation was the changes in
out contracts in the Russian market
the international system and its
has reached 25 billion dollars. Even
reflections upon the relations
though they are not as substantial as
the Turkish investments in Russia, between the two countries and
there are notable Russian investments the Eurasian geography.
made in Turkey, transportation and
energy being the most notable examples.
During the 1990s, the greatest
Turkey purchases 63% of its natural gas
problem between the two countries has
and 29% of its petroleum from Russia.
been the lack of trust and both sides
Another important item within energy
focused on eliminating this problem.
collaborations is the establishment of
It is observable that in the early 1990s,
nuclear plants. As a matter of fact, Prime
both Russia and Turkey became aware
Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has
of this fact. Between December 15-17,
stated “It is significant and meaningful
1997, Russian Prime Minister Victor
that we make our first investments in
Chernomyrdin made his first official
energy with the Russian Federation”.11
visit to Ankara. This visit occurred
Some of the main problematic issues during a period in which Russian-
in relations between the two countries Turkish economic relations had reached
during the 1990s entailed conflicts of record heights and was the first concrete
power over the Caucasus and Central outcome of the convergence in relations.
Asia, Russia’s sale of S-300 missiles to the Both countries were seeking out ways
Greek Cyprus, the CFE (Conventional in which economic relations could be
Armed Forces in Europe Treaty) debates, expanded into other fields. It was during
the passage of Caspian petroleum through this period that the term “strategic
the Turkish straits, and the Kurdish partnership” was first expressed.13 The
and Chechen problems. However, new visit by the Turkish Chief of Staff İsmail
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The Relations between Turkey and Russia in the 2000s
Hakkı Karadayı to Moscow in May will be solved through peaceful means”.15
1998 may also be seen as the first signs of Likewise, in his meeting with Ecevit,
the evaporation of the Cold War cloud Russian President Vladimir Putin made
overshadowing relations. the statement “Whatever the source may
be, Russia has not and will not support
The core factor leading to the
any terrorist acts against Turkey”.16
transformation from rivalry to
cooperation was the changes in the
international system and its reflections
This increase in diplomatic
upon the relations between the two
relations during the first years
countries and the Eurasian geography.
In December 1997, the Czech Republic, of the 2000s was a clear sign
Hungary and Poland, and other former that relations between the
members of the Warsaw Pact, took the two countries were becoming
first steps towards NATO membership. determinedly different from the
Despite Russian opposition, the Western
1990s
world had initiated the process, and this,
for Russia, was unacceptable. In the
same period, Turkey was experiencing As a result of these parallel
serious problems with the EU regarding developments, there was a notable
membership, which became evident increase in diplomatic visits between
during the Luxembourg Summit. Turkey and Russia, and new channels
Moreover, in 1997 and 1998, both for political dialogue, which today are
countries struggled with economic crises. progressively expanding, also started to
These circumstances had already started take form. This increase in diplomatic
bringing both sides closer to one another relations during the first years of the
both in the political, commercial, and
2000s was a clear sign that relations
economic domains.14
between the two countries were
The most important development becoming determinedly different from
indicating an open and decisive drive to the 1990s. Both sides began evaluating
move towards cooperation in bilateral the present level of their relations
relations was the visit made by Prime within economic, political, military-
Minister Bülent Ecevit to Moscow during technical and other fields. They also
November 1999. During this visit, identified each other’s perspectives and
Ecevit was posed a question regarding developmental tendencies in these fields,
Chechnya, where he answered: “We do openly exhibiting their shared desire in
not want to meddle in the internal affairs carrying relations to a higher level. Before
of Russia. We believe that the problem the end of the 1990s, bilateral relations
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Fatih Özbay
between Turkey and Russia proceeded and Russian Foreign Ministers, İsmail
without a particular central focus and Cem and Igor S. Ivanov, who were in
in a somewhat unstable manner. At the New York for the UN General Assembly
end of the 1990s, however, economic Meetings, signed the document titled:
and energy issues started framing “Action Plan Between the Republic
relations. A shared description was not of Turkey and the Russian Federation
reached on the subject of terror and on Cooperation in Eurasia: From
counter terrorism. Nonetheless, it no Co-operation to Multidimensional
longer hindered the relations centered Partnership.”
around economic and trade relations,
In the years 2004-2005, the
and also prepared the ground for multi-
new frameworks established by these
dimensional partnerships.17
agreements began bearing fruits and
On September 6, 2000, Vladimir can be identified as the period in which
Putin and Ahmet Necdet Sezer relations prospered.19 Between February
held a top-level meeting during the 23-26, 2004, Deputy Prime Minister
“Millennium Summit” in New York. In and Foreign Minister Abdullah Gül
October 2000, Russian Prime Minister made an official visit to Moscow. In light
Mikhail Kasyanov visited Ankara, of the changing dynamics of the Turkish-
which was to become a turning point in Russian relations, such a visit was, for the
Russian-Turkish relations. Most notable first time, treated as an “exception” and
was his statement: “Russia and Turkey accepted at the level of “Prime Minister.”
are not rivals. We are partners and our It was then reciprocated through the
governments will enter into relations in visit of Russian President Vladimir
accordance with this principle.” Both Putin to Ankara on 5-6, December
sides expressed the future potential of 2004. In the span of over 500 years of
developing the relations even further, Turkish-Russian relations, perhaps the
“from collaboration to strategic only other comparable visit was that of
partnership”.18 For many years, both Nikolai Podgorny, President of the High
countries had been damaged by terror, Presidium, in 1972. Therefore, Putin’s
therefore the events of September 11, visit to Turkey was of great historic
2001 presented the opportunity for significance. When evaluated from the
convergence in the framework of mutual perspective of bilateral politics, the
understanding. The policy of putting year 2005 was in every sense an annus
problems behind and emphasizing mirabilis (‘incredible year’). Within one
economic cooperation was taken a step year alone, Putin and Erdoğan came
further in the climate formed after 9/11. together four times, including a seven
On November 16, 2001, the Turkish hour long special meeting held along
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The Relations between Turkey and Russia in the 2000s
the Black Sea coast.20 Russian President In 2009, three high level visits were
Putin came to Samsun (Turkey) on realized between the two countries:
November 17, 2005 to join the opening President Gül between 12-15, February
ceremony of the Blue Stream natural 2009, Prime Minister Erdoğan’s Sochi
gas pipeline. Russian Foreign Minister visit on May 16, 2009, followed by
Sergey Lavrov visited Turkey between Russian President Putin’s Ankara visit
on August 6, 2009. During his visit to
May 31 -June 1, 2006. Turkey’s President
Turkey, Putin agreed to provide oil to
Ahmet Necdet Sezer visited Russia
the Samsun-Ceyhan pipeline; at the
during June 28-30, 2006. This was the
same time Turkey declared that as an
first presidential level visit to take place
alternative to Nabucco, the South Stream
between the two countries since the
pipeline would be permitted to cross
founding of the Russian Republic and
Turkish waters. This matter between the
was highly significant in that respect. In
two countries has not yet been resolved.
the following years, this traffic of mutual
While Russia is expecting an “official
visits was maintained in a regular fashion.
permit” from Turkey in order to start
Between 12-15, February 2009, Turkey’s
construction, Turkey is demanding
President Abdullah Gül set forth on a
the prior completion of ecological and
visit including Moscow and Kazan, the
seismic research. Matters related to this
capital of Tatarstan. This was the first
project continue to progress according
time for a Turkish president to visit the
to a timeline. During Putin’s visit,
Tatar Republic and was also an important
agreements were reached on a number
reflection of the emerging trust between of other topics as well, including the
Turkey and Russia. In previous decades, construction of the Blue Stream-2
such a visit by Turkey to the leaders of a pipeline, the creation of underground
Turkic community unit in Russia would natural gas reserves in Turkey, and
have caused much suspicion. On this Russian construction of nuclear power
point, President Abdullah Gül made plants in Turkey.
the statement, “Normally such visits are
The year 2010 was also very
followed by some disturbances. For this
successful, raising the bar in Turkish-
reason, both sides have exhibited mutual
Russian relations. Top level contacts
sensitivity. We did not experience the
and visits between the two countries
slightest problem regarding our visit to continued full speed. Visits at the level
the Tatar Republic. On the contrary, of prime minister and president, as well
it was encouraged. This is proof that as agreements reached, especially around
a relation based on trust is evolving energy, transpired in a stable manner.
between Turkey and Russia”.21 Following the invitation by Russian
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Fatih Özbay
Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, Prime strengthen in the coming years. During
Minister Erdoğan visited Russia at the the “High-Level Strategic Cooperation
beginning of 2010. Subsequently in May, Council” various issues were addressed
Russian President Medvedev made a and lengthy negotiations were made.
three-day official visit to Turkey. During The Russian side demanded that Turkey
this visit, Medvedev held meetings with make a definitive statement about the
both President Gül and Prime Minister nuclear power plant tender and declare
Erdoğan, and signed 17 agreements their decision on the Blue Stream. The
including, foremost, agreements Turkish side expected that Russia take
foreseeing a visa exemption between the the necessary steps regarding the visa
two countries and the construction of a
exemption, the Samsun-Ceyhan pipeline
nuclear power plant in Turkey. The latter
and an appeasement of the “take or pay”
agreement involves the construction
principle in the natural gas agreement.
of Turkey’s first nuclear power plant in
The final steps towards the visa scheme
Mersin-Akkuyu at the cost of 20 billion
exemption were in effect realized, and
dollars.
it was declared that the visas would
Turkish Foreign Minister Davutoğlu ultimately be removed in April 2011.
evaluated this visit during a private This development can be identified as one
interview he gave to the Russian of the greatest gains from the relations in
Ria-Novosti news agency. Davutoğlu recent years and another one of the peaks
expressed that Turkey and Russia had achieved. Following the earthquake in
entered into a sincere and open dialogue Japan and the subsequent accidents in the
on the topic of bilateral relations as well Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant, nuclear
as regional and international matters, energy has become a contested matter
stating: “In our bilateral relations with throughout the world. In this negative
Russia, in all regional and international climate, Turkey’s commitment to the
fields, our dialogue is one of sincerity nuclear power plant project also became
and openness. The eradication of past questionable. However, Prime Minister
prejudices and formation of mutual trust
Erdoğan has spoken in a very clear and
has been achieved. Cooperation with
precise manner stating that the project
the Russian Federation constitutes one
will continue full speed.23 This approach
of the most important elements of our
has created a great sense of relief on the
multidimensional foreign policy”.22
Russian front. Turkey has requested that
Prime Minister Erdoğan’s visit to Russia freeze the “take or pay” clause
both Moscow and Kazan during March stated in the natural gas agreements, but
14-16, 2011 has indicated that Turkish- the Russians have declined the offer on
Russian relations will continue to the presumption that it may encourage
78