The Re-education of Axis Countries Concerning the Jews [1943]

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by  Leo Strauss

The Review of Politics 69 (2007), 530-538.
Copyright (CU niversity ofN otre Dame
DOI: in theU SA
The Re-educationo fA xis Countries
Concerning theJ ews
1. To statem y thesis fromt he outset: I do not believe that theq uestion
which we are discussing tonight is a very importantq uestion. I
believe thatr eparations,r eliefe, migrationa re infinitemlyo re important
topics.I n tryingt o substantiatet hisv iew, I shallb e compelled tod epart
fromv iewsw hich seem tob e widely held in thisc ountryI. shallb e com
pelled to be blunt. I apologize in advance if I shall hurt, against my
serious intentiona,n yone's feelings.
2. In ther emarkws hich I am going tom ake, I shall limimt yself toG ermany,
in the firstp lace, because I have somef irsthandk nowledge ofG ermany,
whereas I have none of any other Axis country. It is only fair that I should
add that even my firsthand knowledge of Germany is very limited: I left
Delivered at thep ublic session on "The Re-education ofA xis Countries Concerning the
Jews" of the annual meeting of the Conference on Jewish Relations, Sunday,
November 7,1943, at 8:15 pm at the New School for Social Research. The other speak
ers were Dr. Esther Brunauer and Prof. Horace Kallen, and the chair was Professor Salo
Baron. Brunauer, author of The Nazi State (Washington, DC: American Association of
University Women, 1934), had been active in interventionistg roups before theU nited
States entered the war and as the secretary of the International Relations Office of the
American Association of University Women had helped to bring women scholars from
Nazi Germany to theU nited States. She went tow ork for the State Department in 1944,
was accused by Sen. Joseph McCarthy of being a Communist and dismissed as a secur
ity risk in 1952, and died in 1958. Kallen (1882-1974), born in Berenstadt, Germany
and educated at Harvard, was one of the original core faculty and a professor of
social philosophy at theN ew School, author of Art and Freedom (New York: Duell,
Sloan, and Pearce, 1942) and many other books, an active Zionist, and originator of
the concept of cultural pluralism. Baron (1895-1989) born in Tarnow, Austria, and
educated at the University of Vienna and the Jewish Theological Seminary there,
was professor of JewishH istory at Columbia University from 1930-1963 and author
of the classic 27-volume Social and Religious History of theJ ews (Columbia University
Press, 1952-1983).
Strauss did not publish this talk though he kept a letterf romO tto Nathan, thenp ro
fessor of economics of Vassar College, of November 13,1943, saying he had done "an
excellent job" and expressing the hope that itw ould be published. See Leo Strauss
Papers, Box 28 folder 4, Regenstein Library Special Collections, University of
Chicago. Nathan (1893-1984) was author of The Nazi Economic System (Durham:
Duke University Press, 1944) and a close associate of Albert Einstein; he later lost a
teaching position at N.Y.U. and was denied a passport in 1952 because of alleged
left-wing associations until a judge ordered the State Department to grant him one.
530
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THE RE-EDUCATION OF AXIS COUNTRIES 531
thatc ountryi n 1932 and never returnedt o ita fterwardS. econdly, the
problem before us concernsG ermany much more than any other
countryT. he otherE uropean Axis countriesa re as much thev ictimsa s
theya re thea llies ofG ermanyW. e do not know yetw hetherH ungary
and Rumania in particularw ill not become cobelligerentso f the
United Nations. These smaller countriesc an say,w ith some show of
truth,t hat theN azi doctrinew as an alien doctrine imposed on them
by the fear of the armed force of a foreign nation. The Germans, on
theo therh and, may, at some futured ate, rejectt heN azi doctrinea s
an abomination: they can never reject it as an alien, as an imported
doctrine.
3. Even ifw e limito ur question toG ermany, it remainsa n iffyq uestion.
When we speak of the re-education of Germany, we assume, of
course, that the war will be won and thatA nglo-Saxon-Russian
cooperationw ill survive the cessation1o f hostilitiesW. e assume also
that the bulk of Germany will not be occupied by the Red Army. For
theR ussian notions about the goal, or them ethods, of re-education
are presumablyd ifferentf romt hose acceptable to the liberalp owers.
AtlanticC harter: thep olitics of thep resenta dministrationo fU .S. and
of theB ritishg ov[ernmen]t.2
4. One must make this remark about the conditions of German
re-educationi n general. For the question of re-educationo fG ermany
concerning the Jews is clearly only a part, if a particularlyd ifficult
part,o f theq uestion of the re-educationo fG ermany in general.P ermit
me to statem y view on theg eneralq uestion somewhatm ore definitely.
When we speak of re-education, we imply that the wrong education,
which is to be replaced by a second education, by a re-education, is of
crucial political importance. We are apt to imply that the root of the dif
ficultiesi s some sorto f education,o f indoctrinationv,i z. theN azi indoc
trination: Is this really the case? And how far is it the case? We must
beware of takingt heN azi doctrines,t heirR assenkundea nd theirg eopo
liticsa nd what not, too seriouslyW. hat was importantw, hat did influ
ence theG ermans,w hat educatedt heG ermansw ere not thosep edantic
folliesb y themselvesb, ut thep rospecto pened up byN azi rearmament,
by Nazi diplomacy, and by Nazi arms, of the solution of all German pro
blems by a short and decisive war. And, after the hope of a short victor
iousw ar was shatteredb y theS pitfirest, hep rospecto f thes olutiono f all
German problemsb y a newH ubertusburgp eace3 on a planetarys cale. If
we disregard theG erman high school teacher,i fw e consider them ass of
1
"ceasing" is crossed out.
2This sentence added in pencil.
3The Treaty ofH ubertusburg at the end of the Seven Years War in 1763 established
Prussia's place as a great European power. I owe this reference to Meredith Edwards.
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532 THE REVIEW OF POLITICS
theG ermans,w e shall find,I believe, thatw hat guided theiro utlook,
and hence theira ctions,w as merely the crucial implicatioonf theN azi
doctrine,v iz. the implicationt hat then eeds of theG erman people as
interpretebdy them ost efficienmt an in the land are the supreme law,
not subject to any higherc onsiderationT. o put itb luntly,t heN azi edu
cation consisted in this: that theyc onvinced a substantialp art of the
German people thatl arges cale and efficientlpyr epared and perpetrated
crimep ays. I remembert hea rgumento fG erman students in thee arly
1920s: a countryw hose policies are not4f etterebdy m oral considerations
is,o ther thingsb eing equal, twicea s stronga s a5 countryw hose policies
are fetteredb ym oral considerationsF. or 50% of all possiblew ays and
means are rejected,a s immoral,b y them oralistic countriesw, hereas
all ways and means are open to the unscrupulous country. It is
evident thatt hisd octrine is subject to the testo f sense-experiencea nd,
hence, that the Nazi doctrine is a force only as long as Nazi strategy is
successful.T he victory of theA nglo-Saxon-Russian combination, if
followed by a just and stem and stable peace, will be the refutation of
the Nazi doctrine, and thus will uproot Nazi education. The
re-educationo fG ermanyw ill not takep lace in classrooms: it is taking
place right now in the open air on the banks of the Dnjepr6 and
among the ruins of the German cities. It will be consummated by a
meeting of British-American and of Russian tanks in Unter den
Linden, and by the harmonious cooperation of theW estern and
Eastern occupying forces in bringing to trial thew ar criminals.N o
proof is as convincing,a s educating,a s the demonstrationa d oculos:
once the greatest German blockheads, impervious to any rational argu
ment and to any feeling of mercy, will have seen with theiro wn eyes that
no brutalityh owever cunning,n o crueltyh owever shameless can dis
pense them fromt hen ecessityo f relyingo n theirv ictims' pity-once
theyh ave seen this,t hed ecisive part of the re-educationalp rocessw ill
have come to a successfulc onclusion.
5. But-you will say-it is one thing for the Germans to realize that the
Nazi doctrine was erroneous, and Nazi education was disastrous; it is
another thing for the Germans to discover the true doctrine and the
rightt ypeo f education.A nd thiso ther thingi s exactly thep urpose of
re-educationW. e are thenc onfrontedw ith the question "what is the
true doctrine?" We shall not hesitate to answer: liberal democracy. But
will liberal democracy have any appeal to, any attraction for, the
Germans? A German form of collectivism perhaps-an authoritarian
regime of the bureaucracy based on a resuscitated authoritarian
4The word "not" inserted twice.
5The word "policy" crossed out.
6TheR ed Army crossed theD nieper in earlyO ctober 1943 and tookK iev November 6.
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THE RE-EDUCATION OF AXIS COUNTRIES 533
interpretatioonf Christianityp erhaps-but not liberalism.A7 formo f
governmentw hich ism erely imposed by a victoriouse nemyw, ill not
last-to sayn othingo f thef actt hatR ussia isn ot exactlya liberald emoc
racyW. here are the roots, inG erman soil, of liberald emocracy?O f
course, therei s a traditiono fG erman liberald emocracy-but we have
to add, a traditiono f political inefficienocfyG erman liberald emocracy.
It came to power only once: after Germany's defeat in the last war.
Seven years later, long before the economic world crisis, itw as already
doomed: thee lectiono fH indenburg to thep residencyo f theR eich in
1925, and, more visibly, the demonstrations in the streets of the
German citiesa ftert hee lection,s howed toe veryonew ho did not delib
eratelyb lind himselfw, here Germanyw as going.N othing reallyk nown
permitsu s to indulge theh ope that thep oliticallye fficienpt art of the
German people has changed theirm inds as regards liberald emocracy.
Until the contrary has been proved, I shall not consider the Free
German Committees8 as representingt he politically efficienpt art of
theG erman people.
But letu s giveG ermany theb enefito f thed oubt: under no circum
stances, however, can we evade the question as to who is going to do
the re-educating?O nly Germans, only Germans who remained in
Germany and shared all the degradation and all the misery9 of Nazi
rule and of defeat, can do it.O nly theyw ill be able to speak a language
understandable to post-HitlerianG ermany.C ertainlyn o foreignerasr e
in [a] position to re-educateG ermany.A nd this fort hreer easons:T he
firsti sG erman pride. I say "pride" and not "conceit." For a nation
which has the pride, and besides the glorious spiritual tradition of
Germany, the idea that they as a nation should have to sit10 at the feet
of foreign nations is unbearable. Or the idea, that they as a nation
should have to be reminded of theirt raditionb y foreignersT. he
second reason is the intellectuacl limate.T he practicala nd commonsen
sical and hence theoretically not radical temper of theA nglo-Saxons was
always differentf rom theG erman temper.B ut after the intellectual
upheaval of the last 20 or 30 years, it is certainly not them ild and easy
going language of Anglo-Saxon humanitarianismw hich is going to
appeal to theG ermans of thep resentg enerationO. nly Germans who
have stayed in Germany,w ill have that particular intellectual,a nd
nervous, tensionw hich will be required in anyone who wants to
reach German ears and minds and souls. The third reason: the
7This sentence inserted at the bottom of the page.
8Anti-Nazi German exiles had formed Free German Committees first in Moscow
and later in London.
9The phrase "and all the responsibility" is crossed out.
10The words "to sit" are written twice but the first time crossed out.
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534 THE REVIEW OF POLITICS
Germans are going toq uestion thec ompetencoef theA nglo-Saxons.T hey
are amazinglyw ell informeda bout all thed eficiencieso f liberald emoc
racy in thec ountriesc oncerned:J imC row, India, etc.T heyw ill empha
size the differenceb etween theA nglo-Saxon doctrine (theA tlantic
Charter) and theA nglo-Saxon practice.T hey are not familiarw ith the
practice, and the spirit,o f compromiset:h eyd o not know that a just
laww hich ism erely on the statuteb ook and not observed inp ractice,
acts neverthelessa s a humanizing influenceh; ence theyw ill speak, as
theyd id speak and as theyd o speak, of hypocrisy.
A nation may take another nation as its model: but no nation can
presume to educate anothern ation which has a high traditiono f its
own. Such a presumptionc reates resentmenta,n d you cannot educate
people who resenty our being theire ducator. If theG ermans were to
submit to re-educationb y foreigners,[ they]1w1 ould lose their self
respect and therewitha ll sense of responsibilityB. ut everything
depends on making theG ermans responsible-in everym eaning of
the term.T he re-educationo f Germany should be exclusively the
affair of Germans. On the other hand, the peace of the world, i.e. the
securityo f then on-Germann ations against the repetitiono fG erman
aggressionm, ust be exclusively the affairo f then on-Germann ations.
Only by thus clearlyd elimitingt he responsibilitiesd, o you guarantee
responsiblec onductO. nly by limitingt hemselvest o theiro wnb usiness,
namely to thep rotectiono f theiro wn securityc, an theU nited Nations
influencet he re-educationo fG ermany: ift heU nited Nations show the
Germans by firm action, by intelligent distrust, by vigilance in arms
that all prospects of German world domination and even of German
expansion have gone, and have gone forever, the Germans will have
been driven back to internal colonization, Im ean, to the cultivation of
theiro wn spiritual traditiona nd of any other innocentp ursuits they
might choose.
6. "Re-education of Germany" is then, tom y mind, open to grave doubts.
A furtherd oubt, a still graver doubt, concerns the re-educationo f
Germany concerningt heJ ewWs. hen I give thoughtt o the re-education
of Germany concerning the Jews, I, being a Jew, cannot help thinking
constantlyo f one basic questionw hich overshadows all otherq uestions:
how can a Jeww ho has some sense of honour, be interested at all inw hat
Germans12 think about Jews? I cannot disregard13, I am not permitted to
disregard, for a single moment the fact that in the whole course of
human history,t hereh as been only one political communityw hose
basic principlew, hose raison d'etre,w hose very soulw as nothingb ut
nThe manuscript has "their."
12"Germany" changed in the manuscript to "Germans."
13The word "for" is crossed out after "disregard."
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THE RE-EDUCATION OF AXIS COUNTRIES 535
theu tterd egradation of Jewsa nd Judaism:t hats tate isG ermany.T he
statec alls itself" Aryan-"b ut the term" Aryan,"t hisp roducto f thisb ar
baric pedantryh, as no intrinsmic eaningw hatsoever: itso nlym eaning is
negative,p olemical: anA ryan simplym eans a non-JewB. ut ift heo bjec
tion is made that the Nazis are not Germany, I would answer that a
nation in thep oliticals ense of thet ermi s thep oliticallyr elevant,t hep ol
iticallye fficienpta rto f then ation:w hen in a freee lection,a bout 45% of
theG ermans voted forH itler, and theo ther5 5%w ere in a conditiono f
utterc onfusiona nd helplessness, then the4 5% are theG ermans- from
any politicalp oint of view.U ntil theG ermans have purifiedt hemselves
by spontaneouslyg ivingu s satisfactionf ort heu nique humiliationt hey
have offeredt ou s, no self-respectinJge wc an, and no Jewo ught to,b e
interestedi nG ermany.
7. Alas-you will say-this languageo fn ationalh onour sounds hollow in
them outh of a member of a small and weak nation, of a nation without
tanks and airplanes. We are reduced to such a condition of misery that
we must be grateful if a handful of Jews who somehow manage to
survive Theresienstadt,w ill be permitted to live in Germany. For
where should theyg o? Let us thend isregardh onour-let us speak of
material needs only. I thinkw e must insistw, hen the final reckoning
comes, on indemnification,1o4n reparation,o n restorationo f robbed
propertyW. e must do this,n ot as individualsw, ho by now may have
become citizenso f thev ictorious states,1b5 ut througha gencies repre
senting the16J ewsa s Jews.F orw ho should claim the robbedp roperty
of the thousandsa nd thousandsw hom theyh ave butchereda nd have
no heirs left? To say nothing of the fact that the government of the
U.S. in particular protects claims for property damages by those
persons onlyw ho were citizens of theU .S.A. at the timew hen such
damage occurred.1W7 e shall thenb elong, in our collectivec apacity,t o
the enemies ofG ermany,v isibly or invisiblys ittingo n the other side
of the peace table, on the side of them any nations which are separated,
for a long time to come, from theG ermans by18 rivers of blood. For itw ill
be theG ermans, thed e-nazifiedG ermans, and not theN azis alone,w ho
will have to pay the reparations. I for one fail to see how life for Jews in
Germany could be bearable under thesec ircumstances.
14The phrase "on restoration," crossed out here.
15Strauss himself at about this timew as applying forU S citizenship, which he
received in 1944.H e received an acknowledgment of his preliminary petition forn atu
ralization dated December 7, 1943, and filed his naturalization petition February 1,
1944. Leo Strauss papers Box 28 folder 1.
16The word "the" inserted above the line.
17This sentence was inserted at the bottom of the page.
18The word "the" is crossed out.
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536 THE REVIEW OF POLITICS
8. Let us assume, however, thatt hesed oubtsw ill be disposed of in some
miraculous way-let us assume thatJ ews can orw ill orm ust live in
Germany,a s German citizens.I n thatc ase,w e doubtlessw ould be inter
ested ina changeo f theG erman view of Jews,a nd, thereforep,e rhaps, in
re-educationo fG ermany concerningt heJ ewsH. ere again, Iw ould have
to raise theq uestion:w ho isg oing tod o ther e-educatingC? ertainlyn ot
we Jews. A Jew trying to convince, by argument, the Germans that the
Jews are decent and intelligentan d physically fita nd may have blue
eyes and blond hair and I do not know what, does not cut an impressive
figureH. e would be open to thea ttack thath e is speakingp rod omo,t hat
all his rationala rgument is servingh is self-interesTt.h e Germans are
particularlys ensitive to everythingw hich has even a semblance of
special pleading: theyw ould just despise such an educator.N or can
non-JewishA mericans do the job. For, as I indicated before, the
Germans are amazingly well informed about the strength of
anti-Jewishf eelings in America. To say nothing of more recent
developments, the restricted area was practically unknown in
pre-HitlerG ermany.O nly Germans can educate theG ermans concern
ing theJ ews.
But whichG ermans? I do not believe thatt he liberaGl ermans could do
it.L iberalism never carried a decisivew eight inG ermany.A nd now,
aftert hee xtinctiono f them iddle class, the traditionabl earer of liberal
ism, the chances of liberalisma re probably stills maller than theye ver
were.
To arrive at a more satisfactorya nswer, I suggest thatw e briefly
compare the German situation with the situation in this country. In
one respect, the situation in Germany was, and is, better than it is in
this countryM. any refugeesc oming fromE urope to this countrya re
amazed to find that so many Catholics in this country are so hostile to
Jews:1G9 erman Catholicismw as much less anti-JewishT. he German
Catholic clergy and a part of the Catholic intelligentsima ight then
become one significanta gent ofG erman re-educationc oncerningt he
Jews.
On the other hand, two important groups of educators are much more
liberali n thisc ountryt han theiro pposite numbers inG ermany are: the
high school and college teachersa nd theP rotestantc lergyT. he German
Oberlehrer and the German Lutheran pastor were perhaps the most
importantc arrierso f the anti-Jewishv irus. (The term" carrier" is not
adequate, for, as the Concise Oxford Dictionary tells me, a carrier is a
person or animal that without catching a disease conveys its germs;
but you will understand what Im ean.) I do not believe that the attitude
of theO berlehrer will have changed even after the defeat; I see no reason
19Consider Father Charles Coughlin.
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THE RE-EDUCATION OF AXIS COUNTRIES 537
why its hould. Theyd id not accept theN azi doctrine,o r theP an-German
doctrinef ora ny low considerationo f earthlys uccess: theyac cepted ito n
grounds ofm orality; thewy ill not be refutedb y defeat; theyw ill wait for
the second coming of theF iihrero nce he has been put to sleep in the
Kyffhfiuser,j2u0s ta s theyh ave beenw aiting fort heE mperorB arbarossa.
The situationo f theL utheran clergyi sd ifferenAt.n ti-Jewisha ttitudes
belonged to theirt raditiong: ive theJ ewh is livelihoodb, ut don'th onour
him,w as theL utheranp rinciple.T he rolep layed by Stdcker2a1n d some
ofh is brethrenf ort hee mergenceo f politicala nti-Semitismin G ermany
isw ell-known.B ut theyh ave now, fort he firstt imem, ade thee xperi
ence 22 that anti-Judaism is apt to lead to anti-Christianism. By no
means all Lutheran clergymenb, ut a substantialp art of them,h ad to
stand up against theN azis. The most conservativpea rt of theL utheran
clergy,t heC onfessionalC hurch,a nd a neo-orthodoxg roup, theB armen
group,23i .e. clergymenf ollowingt he lineso fK arl Barth,b ut even some
lesso rthodoxc lergymend id not give in.F or the firstt ime in itsh istory,
Lutheranismh ad to fighta battlew hich centered around the Jews,
againsta n anti-Jewisgho vernmentan d an anti-Jewispho pularm ovement.
On the other hand, we have to add that they did not defend Jews as Jews or
Judaisma s Judaism:t heyd efended the0 . T24 and theb aptisedJ ewsT. hey
rejectedr acialisma s irreconcilabwlei th Christianityt: heyd id not fight
forl egal,s ocial,o r politicale qualityo f theG erman Jewsa s such.A s far
as I know, certainL utheran clergymenh elped Jews in a practicalw ay
during thep ersecution2o5f 1938,b ut I do not thinkt hatt herei s a single
statemenbty the2P6r otestantc lergyo rP rotestantt heologicafl acultiecs on
ceming the political rights of Jews.
It isp erfectlypo ssible thatt hes o-calledn eo-paganismo f theN azis has
brought about a rapprochemenbt etweenC hristians as Christians and
20A mountain in Saxony-Anhalt where, according to legend, Emperor Frederick
Barbarossa sleeps bewitched in a cave, waiting for the time when he will restore
Germ21an greatness.
Adolf St?cker (1835-1909), Lutheran clergyman, Reichstag member, and founder
of theC hristian Social Party, the Lutheran Social Congress, and theU nited Lutheran
Workers League, who helped push the Conservative Party to adopt anti-Semitism.
See Peter Pulzer, The Rise ofP olitical Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (Harvard
University Press: Cambridge, 1964, 1988), pp. 85-97, 111-119.
22Three letters at the start of this word are darkened or crossed out as if LS had
started to write something else, perhaps "observation."
23TheB armen Synod organized by Karl Barth,M artin Niem?ller, and others inM ay
1934 issued theB armen Declaration, theb asis of theC onfessing Church that opposed
National Socialism and the established Lutheran church.
2401d Testament.
25The word "pogrom" crossed out and "persecution" inserted.
26The word "the" inserted.
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538 THE REVIEW OF POLITICS
Jewsa s Jewse ven inG ermany. If thisi s thec ase, ift heP rotestantc lergy
in particularh as realized that theym ust abandon theira nti-Jewish
traditionsi,t c an be presumed thatt heyw ill use theiri nfluencwe ith the
German people in a desirable directionN. aturally,n o one can tellh ow
great the influenceo f theP rotestantc lergyi n post-HitlerG ermanyw ill
be. If the war and the defeat of the Nazis lead to a reawakening of
Christian faitha nd manners inG ermany, it is not impossible,I believe,
that the leaders of German Catholicism and Protestantismw ill make
some effortst owards the re-educationo f theG ermans concerningt he
Jews. Iw ould be false to the trust you put inm e by asking me to address
you on this subject, if I went one single step beyond thisc onditional
sentence.
But Iw ould be unfair to thoseG ermansw ho did notw aver in their
decent attitude, if I did not report to you a remark which a German
made tom e the other day. He advised me to tell you his conviction that
them ass of the Germans are simply ashamed of what has been done to
Jews in Germany and in the name of Germany; and that, after the war,
Germanyw ill be them ost pro-Jewishco untryi n thew orld.27 If Iw ere a
German, if I had ever been a German, Im ight be prepared, or perhaps in
dutyb ound, toh ave thath ope. Perhaps theseh opes are not unfounded:
in thatc ase, ther e-educationo f theG ermans concerningt heJ ewsw ill be
even superfluousI. shalln ot believeb eforeI have seen.
27A clause is crossed out here: "while non Jewish feelings will be rampant all over
the world."
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