The Psychological Effects of Aerobic Fitness Training: Research and Theory

232 Pages·1991·20.85 MB·English

by  David G. McDonald

Recent Research in Psychology
David G. McDonald James A. Hodgdon
The Psychological Effects of
Aerobic Fitness Training
Research and Theory
Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg London
Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona
David G. McDonald James A. Hodgdon
Department of Psychology Department of Applied Psychology
University of Missouri Naval Health Research Center
Columbia, MO 65211 San Diego, CA 92138
USA USA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
McDonald, David G. (David George)
Psychological effects of aerobic fitness training: research and
theory I David G. McDonald, James A. Hodgdon.
p. cm. --(Recent research in psychology)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-387-97603-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-3182-0
001: 10.1007/978-1-4612-3182-0
1. Aerobic exercises--Psychological aspects. I. Hodgdon, James
A. II. Title. III. Series.
[DNLM: 1. Exercise. 2. Physical Fitness-psychology. QT 255
M478p]
RA781.15.M33 1991
613.7'1 '0 19--dc20
DNLM/DLC 91-4820
for Library of Congress CIP
Printed on acid-free paper.
© 1991 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
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dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the former
are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks
and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.
Camrea-ready copy provided by the authors.
987 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN-13: 978-0-387 -97603-7
PREFACE
This book has two purposes. First, it is a critical ex
amination of the question of how best to do research on
the psychological effects of aerobic fitness training, and,
more to the pOint, why this research is important. Second,
it is a quantitative review of the previous research, with
consideration of its impact on theory.
In dealing with the first question, we have included (1)
some necessary background material on the nature of ae
robic fitness itself and (2) a summary of the basis for the
strikingly high interest in aerobic fitness in recent times.
We then cover the fundamental questions of experimental
design, with many examples of the sources of error or
• confounds· that can be found in the fitness literature, and
we finish by giving a list of recommended features for a
well-designed fitness study. Our purpose is to assist in the
design of future studies, while simultaneously providing
criteria for evaluating previous work.
In dealing with the second question, we use a quanti
tative review process, meta-analYSis. which is an objective
method for combining the results of independent studies.
Therefore included are material on the nature of meta
analysis, historical background. and strengths and weak
nesses. The primary weakness of previously published
meta-analyses is that they may suffer from lack of re
peatability, due to incomplete reporting of the coding
procedures and other data summary steps. We have
therefore included much of our data so that the interested
reader may easily repeat all of our steps, and add any other
post hoc analyses or future updates of interest.
Conducting an objective assessment of this research
gave us an opportunity to attempt a more comprehensive
consideration of its impact on theory, or. more precisely,
vi Preface
a theoretical model representing the established findings
and their interrelationships. Good theory, by definition,
promotes additional work that advances our understanding
of natural processes. We hope we have made a contribution
toward this end.
There are a number of compelling reasons for writing
this book. Not the least of these reasons is the fact that
interest in the psychological effects of aerobic fitness
training is at an all-time high. Consequently, much has
been written on the subject, but with mixed results. Fact
and fiction abound with almost equal credibility and lon
gevity, making it difficult to determine the truly estab
lished, facts or plan intelligently for future studies. Our
primary goal therefore has been to determine what findings
have been well established, and what "findings" have not.
In other words, where are we now, and where should we
go?
We are speaking to anyone interested in the question
of psychological effects of aerobic fitness training, whether
as a consumer or as a current or future investigator. In
vestigators could come from a large variety of fields, in
cluding health psychology, exercise/sport psychology,
exercise phySiology, any of the health professions, and the
disciplines of education, physical education, and sport. This
certainly includes graduate students in any of these areas,
especially students about to embark on a thesis or disser
tation study, plus accelerated undergraduates. Doubtless
there are numerous others, and we welcome interested
comments.
We are especially pleased as well to have this oppor
tunity to acknowledge the support and encouragement pro
vided by others. Among the number of administrators at
the University of Missouri and the Naval Health Research
Center who made supportive contributions were several who
were foremost. The project could not have been accom
plished had it not been for the support provided by Laverne
C. Johnson, in concrete terms of budget, space, and per
sonnel, and also for the high compliment of his consistent
confidence in our efforts. Similarly, Russell Geen, Eric
Gunderson. and Joseph LoPiccolo each provided material
and moral support. for which we owe our thanks.
A number of colleagues made substantive contributions.
Paul Naitoh and Ross Vickers made critical suggestions in
Preface vii
the early stages that helped us avoid serious pitfalls.
Harris Cooper, ever the prototype professional, made sig
nificant suggestions in the early, middle, and final stages.
He and John Honan read early drafts of several of tne
chapters, and as a result some of our early mistakes were
corrected in time. It is a rare privilege to work with such
colleagues.
Still others went out of their way to provide technical
assistance that proved to be utterly essential. Ray Hilbert
and Richard Booth (Naval Health Research Center com
puting services), and Greg Johnson (University of Missouri
computing services) were far more than helpful. Together
they proved that a 2,OOO-mile gap between collaborative
research sites can indeed be virtually eliminated.
Any literature review project is necessarily dependent
on the facilities of a research library and its staff. We
are especially indebted to and sincerely pleased to ac
knowledge the world-class assistance of Mary Aldous and
Betty Croft of the Walter L. Wilkins Biomedical Library.
Naval Health Research Center. Our sincere expression of
gratitude could never fully repay their enormous contri
bution.
Finally. and most importantly. Merete McDonald pro
vided consistent support and encouragement for the project,
beginning with the first rough index cards ("just a quick
little project"), and continuing through to its completion.
Sharing with her all the temporary setbacks and moments
of accomplishment in this work has been a deep and abiding
satisfaction, and the gratitude returned is equally sincere.
David G. McDonald
James A. Hodgdon
January, 1991
CONTENTS
Preface v
ONE - INTRODUCTION 1
Coronary Heart Disease in the Twentieth Century 2
Can the Study of Risk Factors Reverse the Trend? 4
Emerging Significance of the Field of Exercise Physi-
ology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Can Fitness Provide Insurance Against Coronary Heart
Disease? .......... 8
Exercise as Its Own Reward 10
Summary ....... 11
TWO - AEROBIC FITNESS 13
What Is Aerobic Fitness? 13
Popular Aspects of Fitness and the Exercise Revo-
lution ......................... 14
What Is the Training Effect and How Is It Achieved? 15
What Are the Risks and Necessary Precautions? 16
What Are the Likely Results of a Fitness Program? 17
Demonstrated Health Benefits of Aerobic Fitness 18
Summary ..... ..... 25
THREE - EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 27
Introduction 27
What Are Subject and Experimenter Biasing Effects? 29
Problems with Definition and Standardization of
Procedure ..................... 31
Effects of Extraneous Variables on the Validity of
Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Extraneous Variables Affecting Internal Validity 33
Extraneous Variables Affecting External Validity 37
Requirements for a Study of Aerobic Fitness Effects 39
Procedures for Measurement of Aerobic Fitness 44
Summary ....................... 46
x Contents
FOUR - MET A-ANALYSIS 48
The Nature of Evidence in the Scientific Process 48
Sources of Error in Narrative Research Reviews 50
Origin of and Early Work in Meta-analysis 52
Strengths and Benefits of Meta-analysis 53
When is Meta-analysis Appropriate? 57
How to Do a Meta-analysis ..... . 58
Problems and Solutions in Meta-analysis 59
Remaining Problems in Meta-analysis 61
Summary ....... . 63
FIVE - SEARCH METHODS 65
What and Where Is the Target Literature? 65
Computer-Assisted Searches 66
Additional Search Methods 67
Selection Criteria . . . . . . 69
Characteristics of Studies Not Included 71
Coding Methods ......... . 72
Information in the Coding Summary 74
Summary ..... 76
SIX - MOOD STUDIES 78
Measures of Mood State 79
Independent Variables 80
Results by Study 86
Results by Group 92
POMS and MAACL Compared 97
General Findings 97
Interpretation of Findings 98
Summary ....... . 99
SEVEN - DEPRESSION AND ANXIETY 101
Measures of Depression 102
Measures of Anxiety 104
Independent Variables 105
Results by Study 108
Depression and Anxiety Groups -- Results by Group 108
Additional Comparisons ....... . 117
General Findings -- Depression Studies 119
General Findings -- Anxiety Studies 120
Depression and Anxiety Compared 121
Interpretation of Findings for Depression and Anx-
iety .................. . 122
Contents xi
Summary 123
EIGHT - SELF-CONCEPT STUDIES 125
Measures of Self-concept 126
Independent Variables 129
Results by Study 132
Resul ts by Group 132
Additional Comparisons 139
General Findings 140
Interpretation of Findings 141
Summary ..... 143
NINE - PERSONALITY STUDIES 145
Measures of Personali ty 146
Independent Variables 149
Results by Study 156
Resul ts by Group 156
Additional Comparisons 174
General Findings 176
Interpretation of Findings 177
Summary 179
TEN - THEORY AND CONCLUSIONS 182
Summary of Results 182
Theoretical Models 188
Guidelines for Future Research 192
Appendix A 195
Statistical Formulae 195
Coding Summary 196
References 199
Index 217
ONE
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this book is to review and evaluate the
research on the psychological effects of aerobic fitness
training. It is a book that would have been impossible to
write only a few short years ago. Today, however, there
is a significant number of highly provocative studies on this
Question in the literature. with more and more appearing
almost daily.
To accomplish such an evaluative review in a manner
that makes a legitimate contribution, however, we must
first address the background Questions and more recent
developments that have combined to make this work
worthwhile at this time. There are indeed a number of
such critical background considerations that are especially
relevant, and it is our intention to clarify these matters
first, and then turn to the target literature after the
context has been properly defined.
In order of presentation, these major Questions are:
What are the public health conSiderations, especially with
regard to coronary heart disease, that have led to the re
latively recent public espousal of the exercise hypothesis,
that is, that physical fitness produces a measure of pro
tection from coronary disease? Are there any additional
motivating factors. beyond public health considerations,
that have contributed to the emergence of the national
fitness movement? What are these other motivating fac
tors, and what do we mean by the term "physical fitness'
(especially aerobic fitness), plus how is it achieved, and
what are the demonstrated benefits? What are the primary
considerations in designing and conducting a rigorous ex
perimental test of the-effects of fitness training, and what
have been the most frequently encountered difficulties with
experiments in this area? How does one go about finding
the published research on this Question, and how best should
one evaluate it?
Only after these Questions have been properly discussed
would it be appropriate to begin consideration of the re-