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Globale Gesellschaft und internationale Beziehungen Ademola Adediji The Politicization of Ethnicity as Source of Conflict The Nigerian Situation Globale Gesellschaft und internationale Beziehungen Herausgegeben von Th . Jäger, Köln, Deutschland Weitere Informationen zu dieser Reihe finden Sie unter http://www.springer.com/series/12384 Ademola Adediji The Politicization of Ethnicity as Source of Conflict The Nigerian Situation Ademola Adediji Köln, Deutschland Dissertation Universität zu Köln, 2015 Globale Gesellschaft und internationale Beziehungen ISBN 978-3-658-13482- 2 ISBN 978-3-658-13483-9 ( eBook ) D OI 10.1007/978-3-658-13483-9 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016939259 © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer VS imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my research project supervi- sors, Professor Dr. Thomas Jäger and Professor Dr. Wolfgang Leidhold. My special thanks go to Professor Jäger for his constructive advice and useful cri- tiques during the planning and designing of this research study as well as his re- markable contribution towards the successful completion of this PhD disserta- tion. His willingness to always give me audience in spite of his tight time sched- ule has been very much appreciated. My gratitude also extends to Professor Dr. Andreas Kaiser, Professor Dr. Norbert Finzsch and Professor Dr. Wolfgang Wessels for the assistance rendered while applying for scholarships and funding for the PhD thesis. I will also like to extend my thanks to the following foundations for their help in offering me the resources in running the program: Kölner Gymnasial- und Stiftungsfonds, Fazit-Stiftung, Anna Ruths-Stiftung and Paul + Maria Krä- mer Stiftung. I extend my utmost gratitude to Bernhard Esser from the Catholic University Community in Cologne (KHG) for his encouragement, support and advice through the years. I wish to acknowledge the assistance given me by Mr. Castrol Wesamba during my internship at the United Nations in New York. His advice and expertise on various conflicts as well as the task assigned and en- trusted to me got me acquainted with the workings of the UN system. Indeed, the teamwork of all the professionals and my experiences at the Office of the Special Adviser on Genocide Prevention and Mass Atrocities enriched and con- tributed to my research project. I cannot forget the people in my life who make this success possible. I wish to thank my mother, Chief Mrs. Rachiel Adediji, Pastor Agboola Oni-Orisan, Ufondo and Rowland Ogbuene for their contributions towards this project. Spe- cial thanks to my friends: Abdoul Layesy, Ike Dike, Maryam Sorie, Miriam Kretzschmar, Thomas Furlong, Julia Schwerk, Christian Gast, Dennis Werner, Jill Ahrens, Bidemi Omoyeni, Jan Vollmann, Marcel Fiedler, Gerardo Rivera, Nicole Fus and a host of others. I know I have not given many of them enough attention due to the challenges of the research work. I hope I can make up for it in the nearest future. How can I forget my longtime friend, Peter Ibhaze, with 6 Acknowledgements whom I did go on long rides just for me to take some time off. The time we spent together had been fun and really helped a lot. Finally, I extend my gratitude to my family and friends from different parts of the world for their support and encouragement throughout my research proj- ect. Table of Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 13 A. Assumption and Problem: Ethnicity as the Cause of Conflicts in Africa . 15 B. An Overview of the Nigerian Situation .................................................... 17 C. Significance of the Research Study .......................................................... 20 D. The Structure of the Dissertation .............................................................. 21 E. Methodology ............................................................................................. 23 2. The Politicization of Ethnicity: Clarification and Analysis of Key Concepts .................................................................................................. 43 2.1 General Explanation and Etymological Analysis of the Term ‘Ethnicity’ . 43 2.2 The Emergence and Analysis of the Scientific Definition of Ethnicity ..... 48 2.3 Concept Analyses: Distinction of Specific Terminologies about Ethnicity 56 2.3.1 Ethnic Groups ................................................................................ 57 2.3.2 Ethnocentrism ................................................................................ 64 2.3.3 Race ............................................................................................... 66 2.3.4 Nation ............................................................................................ 70 2.3.5 Identity .......................................................................................... 74 2.3.6 Tribalism ....................................................................................... 75 2.3.7 Assessment of Ethnicity and Other Relevant Concepts ................. 78 2.4 Politicization: Conceptualization and Clarification of Concept ................ 81 2.4.1 The Study and Definition of Politics ............................................. 82 2.4.2 The Essence of Power in Politics .................................................. 87 2.4.3 Politicization: Definition and Explanation of the Concept ............ 92 2.4.3.1 The Concepts of Politicization and Democracy .............. 96 2.4.3.2 The Effects of Politicization in Pluralistic Societies ....... 97 2.4.4 Synthesis of Terminologies: The Politicization of Ethnicity ....... 100 2.4.4.1 The Politicization of Ethnicity: Explanation of its Emergence and Use .................................................. 101 2.4.4.2 The Politicization of Ethnicity: Definition and Description .................................................................... 106 2.4.4.3 Functions of the Politicization of Ethnicity ................... 111 8 Table of Contents 2.4.5 Intermediate Assessment on Politicization and the Politicization of Ethnicity .................................................................................. 113 3. Conceptual Framework: Theoretical Perspectives ............................ 119 3.1 Examining the Theory of Ethnicity: The Perspective of Instrumentalism ...................................................................................... 121 3.2 Ethnicity: A Social Construct ................................................................. 127 3.2.1 The Social Boundaries of Ethnicity ............................................. 132 3.2.2 Determinants of Ethnic Groups: Ethnic Boundaries and Ethnicity ...................................................................................... 134 3.2.2.1 Understanding Ethnic Groups as a Culture Bearing Unit 136 3.2.2.2 Examining Ethnic Groups as an Organizational Type ... 136 3.2.2.3 Analysis of the Boundaries of Ethnic Groups ............... 138 3.2.2.4 The Case of a Poly-Ethnic Social System ..................... 142 3.2.2.5 Re-examining the Associations of Identities and Value Standards ....................................................................... 146 3.2.2.6 Interdependence of Ethnic Groups ................................ 148 3.2.3 The Theoretical Aspect of Identity and Difference in Ethnicity .. 152 3.2.3.1 Objections to and Illustrations of Ethnicity as the Source of Conflicts .................................................................... 153 3.2.3.2 Theoretical Basis: The Theory of Identity and Difference in Ethnicity .................................................................... 166 3.2.3.3 Further Theory of Ethnicity: Decision Theory of Identity and Differences .............................................................. 171 3.2.3.4 Relevance of Two Approaches: Instrumentalist and Decision Theories .......................................................... 176 3.2.3.5 Intermediate Assessment: Two Theoretical Models ...... 178 4. Empirical Analysis: The Politicization of Ethnicity as the Cause of Conflicts ................................................................................................. 183 4.1 Description and Definition of Conflicts .................................................. 183 4.1.1 Potential and Actual Conflicts: Further Analysis of Conflict Definition ..................................................................................... 188 4.1.2 Deep-Rooted Conflict: Understanding and Explanation of the Phenomenon ................................................................................ 193 4.2 Types of Conflicts as an Essential Field of Study .................................. 197 4.2.1 Political Conflict .......................................................................... 198 Table of Contents 9 4.2.2 Social Conflict ............................................................................. 201 4.2.3 Ethnic Conflict ............................................................................ 203 4.2.4 Environmental Conflicts .............................................................. 206 4.2.5 Intermediate Assessment: The Definition, Description and Types of Conflicts ....................................................................... 208 4.3 Literature Review: Current Research on the Causes of Conflicts in Nigeria .................................................................................................... 210 4.3.1 The Experience of Colonialism as the Cause of Conflicts .......... 214 4.3.2 Colonialism: Neocolonialism and Economic Conditions ............ 227 4.4 Multinational Corporations: The Act of Exploitation in Africa .............. 231 4.4.1 Multinational Corporations: Advent and Roles in the 20th and 21st Century ................................................................................ 235 4.4.2 Multinational Firms and Conflict: Failure of Social Corporate Responsibility .............................................................................. 240 4.5 Resource Curse: The Source of Conflicts ............................................... 248 4.5.1 The Cause of Conflicts: Examining the Resource Curse/Rentier State Theory ................................................................................ 249 4.5.2 Oil Curse as the Cause of Conflicts: The Example of Nigeria .... 253 4.6 Outbreaks of Conflicts: The Instigation of the Elites .............................. 262 4.6.1 The Position of the Elites in Nigeria ............................................ 263 4.6.2 The Position of Elites in other African Countries ........................ 267 4.7 The Genesis of Conflicts: Religious Antagonism as an Important Factor ...................................................................................................... 274 4.7.1 Religions and Religious Interactions in Conflicts ....................... 278 4.7.2 Significance of Religion and Religious Conflicts on the African Continent ..................................................................................... 286 4.7.3 Religious Crises: Shedding of Blood, Killings and Terrorism in God’s Name ................................................................................. 290 4.7.4 Proxy Religious Conflicts in Africa ............................................ 300 4.8 Conclusion of the Current Research on the Causes of Conflicts in Nigeria .................................................................................................... 306 5. Introduction: The Dynamics of the Politicization of Ethnicity in Nigeria .................................................................................................... 309 5.1 Instances of the Current Instabilities in Nigeria ...................................... 312 5.2 The Historical Background of Nigeria .................................................... 315 5.3 Historical Overview of the Three Largest Ethnic Groups ...................... 327 5.3.1 The Hausa-Fulani Ethnic Group .................................................. 328

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