The Police in America: An Introduction

621 Pages·2017·12.517 MB·English

by  Charles Katz, Samuel Walker

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The Police
in America
an introduction
Samuel Walker | Charles M. Katz
Ninth Edition
The Police
in America
an introduction
Samuel Walker
University of Nebraska at Omaha
Charles M. Katz
Arizona State University
THE POLICE IN AMERICA: AN INTRODUCTION, NINTH EDITION
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Walker, Samuel, 1942- author. | Katz, Charles M., author.
Title: The police in America : an introduction / Samuel Walker, University of
Nebraska at Omaha, Charles M. Katz, Arizona State University.
Description: Ninth Edition. | Dubuque, IA : McGraw-Hill Education, [2017] |
Revised edition of the authors’ The police in America, c2013.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016053271| ISBN 9781259140761 (alk. paper) | ISBN
1259140768 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Police--United States. | Police administration--United States.
Classification: LCC HV8139 .W35 2017 | DDC 363.20973--dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2016053271
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Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
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About the Authors
Samuel Walker
Dr. Samuel Walker is Professor Emeritus at the University of
Nebraska at Omaha, where he taught for 31 years before retiring in 2005. He is the author of
14 books on policing, criminal justice policy, and civil liberties. He continues to write and
consult in the area of police accountability, with a special interest in police early intervention
systems and federal litigation against police misconduct.
Charles Katz
Dr. Charles Katz is the Watts Family Director of the Center for Violence
Prevention and Community Safety and is a Professor in the School of Criminology and
Criminal Justice at Arizona State University. Dr. Katz earned his Ph.D. in Criminal Justice
from the University of Nebraska at Omaha in 1997. He is coauthor of Policing Gangs in
America (published by Cambridge University Press) and numerous articles on policing and
gangs. He is currently working with several large metropolitan police agencies evaluating
programs and practices.
iii
Contents in Brief
Preface XVI
P A R T I Foundations 1
1 Police and Society 2
2 The History of the American Police 28
3 The Contemporary Law Enforcement Industry 70
P A R T II Officers and Organizations 101
4 Police Organizations 102
5 Police Officers I: Recruitment and Training for
a Changing Society 130
6 Police Officers II: On the Job 166
P A R T III Police Work 211
7 Patrol: The Backbone of Policing 212
8 Peacekeeping and Order Maintenance 250
9 The Police and Crime 282
10 Advances in Police Strategy 324
P A R T IV Issues in Policing 367
11 Police Discretion 368
12 Legitimacy and Police–Community Relations 404
13 Police Corruption 454
14 Accountability of the Police 488
P A R T V Challenges for a New Century 543
15 The Future of Policing in America 544
Glossary 569 | Name Index 581 | Subject Index 584
iv
Contents
Preface XVI
P A R T I Foundations 1
1 A Special Case: The Police and Juveniles 23
C H A P T E R
Police and Society 2 Research and Policing: Evidence-Based
Programs 23
The Goals of This Book 3
Summary 24
Why Do We Have Police? 3
Key Terms 25
A Framework for Understanding the Police For Discussion 25
and Policing 4
Internet Exercises 25
A Democratic Police 5
Democracy and Accountability 5
2
A Legitimate Police 6 C H A P T E R
Procedural Justice 7 The History of the
Practices That Build Legitimacy 8 American Police 28
Legitimacy and Police–Public Interactions 8
Flashback: Moments in American
Legitimacy, Trust, and Race Relations 9 Police History 29
An Open and Transparent Police 10 The First American Police Officer 29
Practices That Create Openness and Flash Forward: 1950 29
Transparency 11
Why Study Police History? 29
An Accountable Police 12
The English Heritage 30
Police Accountability: Goals and Methods 12
Creation of the Modern Police: London, 1829 31
Accountability on Police Use of Force 12
Law Enforcement in Colonial America 32
Collecting and Analyzing Data on Use of Force 14
The Quality of Colonial Law Enforcement 32
Accountability in Routine Police–Public Contacts 15
The First Modern American Police 33
Training to Prevent Bias in Police Activities 15
The “Political Era” in American Policing,
Independent Investigations and Review
of Critical Incidents 16 1830s—1900 34
An Effective Police 17 A Lack of Personnel Standards 35
Patrol Work in the Political Era 35
The Complex Responsibilities of the Police 17
The Police and the Public 36
Ineffective Strategies for Controlling Crime
and Disorder 18 Corruption and Politics 37
Effective Strategies for Controlling Crime Immigration, Discrimination, and
and Disorder 21 Police Corruption 38
Partnerships with the Public 21 The Failure of Police Reform 39
A Special Case: The Police and the Mentally Ill 22 The Impact of the Police on Crime and Disorder 40
v
vi Contents
The Professional Era, 1900–1960 40 3
C H A P T E R
The Police Professionalization Movement 41 The Contemporary Law
The Reform Agenda 41 Enforcement Industry 70
The Achievements of Professionalization 42
Basic Features of American Law
Other Impacts of Professionalization 43
Enforcement 71
Police and Race Relations 44
An “Industry” Perspective 71
New Law Enforcement Agencies 44
An International Perspective 72
Technology Revolutionizes Policing 45 Size and Scope of the Law Enforcement
New Directions in Police Administration, Industry 73
1930–1960 47 The Number of Law Enforcement Agencies 73
The Wickersham Commission Bombshell 47 The Number of Law Enforcement Personnel 74
Professionalization Continues 47 Understanding Law Enforcement Personnel Data 74
Simmering Racial and Ethnic Relations 48 Civilianization 75
The Police–Population Ratio 75
J. Edgar Hoover and the War on Crime 48
The Cost of Police Protection 75
The Police Crises of the 1960s 49
The Fragmentation Issue 76
The Police and the Supreme Court 49
Alternatives to Fragmentation 77
The Police and Civil Rights 51
The Fragmentation Problem Reconsidered 79
The Police in the National Spotlight 52
Municipal Police 80
The Research Revolution 53
County Police 80
New Developments in Policing,
The County Sheriff 81
1970–2016 55
The Role of the Sheriff 81
The Changing Police Officer 55
Other Local Agencies 82
Administrative Rulemaking and the Control
The Constable 82
of Police Discretion 56
The Coroner/Medical Examiner 82
The Emergence of Police Unions 57
Special District Police 83
The Spread of Citizen Oversight of Police 57 Tribal Police 83
Community Policing, Problem-Oriented Policing, State Law Enforcement Agencies 85
and Other Innovations 58
Federal Law Enforcement Agencies 86
Data-Driven Policing 60
Federal Law Enforcement after September 11,
Racial Profiling and Discrimination 60 2001 86
Federal Investigations of Police The Private Security Industry 90
Misconduct 61
Minimum Standards: American Style 93
Local Police and the War on
The Role of the Federal Government 93
Terrorism 62
The Role of State Governments 93
The National Police Crisis, 2014–2016 63
Accreditation 94
CASE STUDY: De-escalating Police–Citizen CASE STUDY: The Fraser/Winter Park (CO) Police
Encounters 63
Department 94
Summary 64
Summary 96
Key Terms 65 Key Terms 96
For Discussion 65 For Discussion 96
Internet Exercises 65 Internet Exercises 96
Contents vii
P A R T II Officers and Organizations 101
4 5
C H A P T E R C H A P T E R
Police Organizations 102 Police Officers I: Recruitment and
Training for a Changing Society 130
The Quasi-Military Style of Police
Organizations 103 The Changing American Police Officer 131
Criticisms of the Quasi-Military Style 103
What Kind of Police Officer Do We Want? And for
Police Departments as What Kind of Policing? 131
Organizations 105 The Police Personnel Process 132
The Dominant Style of American Police A Career Perspective 133
Organizations 105
Beyond Stereotypes of Cops 133
Police Organizations as Bureaucracies 105 The Personnel Process: A Shared Responsibility 134
The Problems with Bureaucracy 108 Recruiting Police Officers 134
The Positive Contributions of Bureaucracy What Kind of Job? What Kind of Person? 135
in Policing 108
Minimum Qualifications 135
Informal Aspects of Police Organizations 108
The Recruitment Effort 139
Bureaucracy and Police Professionalism 110 Choosing Law Enforcement as a Career 139
Changing Police Organizations 110 Applicants’ Motivations 139
Community Policing 110 Obstacles to Recruitment 140
Task Forces 112 Testing and Selecting Applicants 141
COMPSTAT 113 Selection Tests 141
Civil Service 115 Background Investigations 142
Police Unions 116 Predicting Police Officer Performance 142
Aspects of Police Unions 116 Achieving Diversity in Police Employment 143
Collective Bargaining 117 The Goals of Diversity 143
Grievance Procedures 117 The Law of Equal Employment Opportunity 144
Impasse Settlement and Strikes 117 “Not Your Father’s Police Department”: Diversity
in Policing 144
The Impact of Police Unions 120
Women in Policing 146
Police Organizations and Their
Employment Discrimination Suits 147
Environment 122
The Impact of Increased Diversity 149
Contingency Theory 122
Police Training: Progress and New Challenges 149
Institutional Theory 122
New Thinking about Policing and Training 150
Resource Dependency Theory 123
The Police Academy 150
CASE STUDY: COMPSTAT in Chicago 124 Training on the Use of Force 152
Summary 125 Tactical Decision-Making 153
Key Terms 125 Scenario-Based Training 153
For Discussion 125 Fragmented and Inconsistent Training 154
Internet Exercises 126 The Consequences of Inadequate Training 154
viii Contents
Training on Unconscious Bias 155 African American Officers on the Job 183
Training on Procedural Justice 155 Hispanic Officers 183
Field Training 155 Gay and Lesbian Officers 184
In-Service Training 156 The Intersection of Gender, Race, Ethnicity,
Training of Supervisors 157 and Sexual Identity 185
Does Diversifying a Department Change the
The Probationary Period 157
Police Subculture? 186
CASE STUDY: Improving Training for Domestic Violence
Rising Levels of Police Officer Education 186
Incidents: A Problem-Oriented Approach 158
Cohort Effects on Performance 187
Summary 159
Organizational Effects on Attitudes
Key Terms 159
and Performance 187
For Discussion 160
Attitudes toward Community Policing 188
Internet Exercises 160
The Relationship between Attitudes
and Behavior 189
C H A P T E R 6 Styles of Police Work 189
Police Officers II:
Moving through Police Careers 190
On the Job 166
Salaries and Benefits 190
Reality Shock: Beginning Police Work 168 Career Development 191
Encountering Citizens 168 Promotion 191
Encountering the Criminal Justice System 169 Assignment to Special Units 192
Encountering the Department 169 Lateral Entry 193
Starting Out on the Job 170 Outside Employment 193
Impact of the Seniority System 170
Performance Evaluations 194
The Concept of a Unique Police Subculture 172
Traditional Performance Evaluations 194
The Original Concept 172
Problems with Performance Evaluations 195
The Capacity to Use Force as a Defining Feature
Job Satisfaction and Job Stress 196
of Policing 174
The Dangers of Policing: Potential versus Actual 175 The Sources of Job Satisfaction 196
Conflicting Work Demands 177 The Sources of Job Stress 197
New Perspectives on a Complex and Changing Job Stress and Suicide 198
Police Subculture 178 Community Policing and Job Satisfaction 199
The Changing Rank and File: The Impact Coping with Job Stress 200
of Diversity 179
The Rights of Police Officers 200
The Impact of Women Police Officers on the
Turnover: Leaving Police Work 202
Police Subculture 179
Women Officers on Patrol Duty 181 Decertification 203
Female versus Male Officers: Differences in Summary 203
Misconduct Issues 181 Key Terms 204
Sexual Harassment on the Job 182 For Discussion 204
African American Officers 182 Internet Exercise 204
Contents ix
P A R T III Police Work 211
7
C H A P T E R Findings and Implications of the Kansas
Patrol: The Backbone of Policing 212 City Experiment 235
The Newark Foot Patrol Experiment 236
The Central Role of Patrol 213
New Questions, New Approaches 237
The Functions of Patrol 214
The Organization and Delivery of Patrol 214 Improving Traditional Patrol 237
Factors Affecting the Delivery of Patrol Services 214 Differential Response to Calls 237
Number of Sworn Officers 214 Telephone Reporting Units 238
Assignment to Patrol 216 311 Nonemergency Numbers 238
The Distribution of Patrol Officers 216
Non-English 911 Call Services 239
Assignment of Patrol Officers 218
Reverse 911 239
“Hot Spots” 218
Computers and Video Cameras in Patrol Cars 239
Types of Patrol 218
Police Aides or Cadets 240
Foot Patrol 219
One-Officer versus Two-Officer Cars 219 Directed Patrol and Hot Spots 241
Staffing Patrol Beats 220 Customer Feedback 242
Styles of Patrol 220 Beyond Traditional Patrol 242
Individual Styles 220
CASE STUDY: The Philadelphia Foot Patrol Experiment
Supervisors’ Styles 221 by Jerry Ratcliffe et al. 242
Organizational Styles 221
Summary 244
Patrol Supervision: The Role of
Key Terms 245
the Sergeant 222
For Discussion 245
The Communications Center 223
Internet Exercises 245
The Nerve Center of Policing 223
911 Systems 223
Processing Calls for Service 224
8
C H A P T E R
Operator–Citizen Interactions 226
Peacekeeping and Order
The Systematic Study of Police Patrol 226
Maintenance 250
Standards for Systematic Social Observation 226
The Call Service Workload 228 The Police Role 251
The Volume of Calls 228 Calling the Police 252
Types of Calls 228 Public Expectations 252
Aspects of Patrol Work 230
Police Response 252
Response Time 230
Traffic Enforcement 253
Officer Use of Patrol Time 231
Drunk-Driving Crackdowns 255
Evading Duty 232
High-Speed Pursuits 232 Policing Domestic Disputes 256
The Effectiveness of Patrol 233 Defining Our Terms 256
Initial Experiments 233 The Prevalence of Domestic Violence 257
The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment 234 Calling the Police 257