The poetics of memory in post-totalitarian narration

203 Pages·2008·2.123 MB·English

by  Lindbladh, Johanna

Johanna Lindbladh (ed)
The Poetics of Memory in Post-Totalitarian Narration
Can we create a true memory of the past? How shall this truth, in that case, be presented?
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Against the background of a totalitarian epoch and its falsified history writing, the a
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notions of memory, history and truth have received quite specific meanings. na Johanna Lindbladh (ed)
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This book sheds light on several totalitarian and post-totalitarian regions, such as Russia, in The Poetics of Memory in
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Poland, Latvia, Serbia, Romania, China and South Africa. Taking the various genres and b
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media of film, literature, art, autobiographies, testimonies, history textbooks, newspapers d
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and websites as their point of departure, an international group of researchers examine (
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the collective and individual memory in these regions, investigating its relation to poetics, d
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identity, myth, history writing and, not least... its relation to the Truth. T
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ISSN 1654-2185
Print: Media-Tryck Lund, 2008
FOR E UROPEAN
E ST CFE Conference Papers Series No. 3 Lund 2008
R U
T D
N EI
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Johanna Lindbladh (ed) Johanna Lindbladh (ed)
The Poetics of Memory in The Poetics of Memory in
Post-Totalitarian Narration Post-Totalitarian Narration
LUND UNIVERSITY LUND UNIVERSITY
CFE Conference Papers Series No. 3 CFE Conference Papers Series No. 3
Lund 2008 Lund 2008
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The CFE Conference paper series is published by The CFE Conference paper series is published by
The Centre for European Studies (CFE) at Lund University The Centre for European Studies (CFE) at Lund University
The publication is financed by The Centre for European Studies (CFE) The publication is financed by The Centre for European Studies (CFE)
©2008 The Centre for European Studies at Lund University and the authors. ©2008 The Centre for European Studies at Lund University and the authors.
Editor: Johanna Lindbladh Editor: Johanna Lindbladh
Cover photograph: ©2008 Monika Lozinska-Lee. The photograph is part of the Cover photograph: ©2008 Monika Lozinska-Lee. The photograph is part of the
series Images of Memory #4, 1999 series Images of Memory #4, 1999
Print: Media-Tryck, sociologen, 2008 Print: Media-Tryck, sociologen, 2008
Typesetting: Jonas Palm Typesetting: Jonas Palm
ISSN: 1654-2185 ISSN: 1654-2185
This paper is also available in pdf-format at CFEs website: www.sfe.lu.se This paper is also available in pdf-format at CFEs website: www.sfe.lu.se
CENTRE FOR EUROPEAN STUDIES AT LUND UNIVERSITY CENTRE FOR EUROPEAN STUDIES AT LUND UNIVERSITY
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Table of contents Table of contents
PART I: Memory, Narration and Identity 1 5 PART I: Memory, Narration and Identity 1 5
‘Wounded Narratives’: Jewish Childhood Recollections in ‘Wounded Narratives’: Jewish Childhood Recollections in
Post-Soviet Autobiographical Discourse Post-Soviet Autobiographical Discourse
Marina Balina 15 Marina Balina 15
Hindsight and Sideshadowing in Recent British and Irish Hindsight and Sideshadowing in Recent British and Irish
Autobiography Autobiography
Nicola King 27 Nicola King 27
The Problem of Narration and Reconciliation in Svetlana The Problem of Narration and Reconciliation in Svetlana
Aleksievich’s Testimony Voices from Chernobyl’ Aleksievich’s Testimony Voices from Chernobyl’
Johanna Lindbladh 41 Johanna Lindbladh 41
PART II: Individual Memory in Relation to Economic and PART II: Individual Memory in Relation to Economic and
Political Interests 5 5 Political Interests 5 5
Voices Found and Lost. Illness as Metaphor in Post Soviet Voices Found and Lost. Illness as Metaphor in Post Soviet
Latvia Latvia
Vieda Skultans 55 Vieda Skultans 55
Remembering Soviet Everyday Life – the Burdens, Remembering Soviet Everyday Life – the Burdens,
Happiness and Advantages of Maternity in Soviet Russia Happiness and Advantages of Maternity in Soviet Russia
in the Late 1940–1960s in the Late 1940–1960s
Yulia Gradskova 69 Yulia Gradskova 69
The Poetics of Memory as the Politics of Reading: Fourteen The Poetics of Memory as the Politics of Reading: Fourteen
Episodes of Remembering Episodes of Remembering
Irina Sandomirskaia 81 Irina Sandomirskaia 81
How to Remember a Dead Soldier How to Remember a Dead Soldier
Per-Arne Bodin 95 Per-Arne Bodin 95
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PART III: Memory and Myth in the Arts 111 PART III: Memory and Myth in the Arts 111
Mistrusting the Past. Andrei Nekrasov’s Documentary Mistrusting the Past. Andrei Nekrasov’s Documentary
Composition Disbelief (Nedoverie) Composition Disbelief (Nedoverie)
Fiona Björling 111 Fiona Björling 111
The Myth of St Petersburg in the Contemporary Russian The Myth of St Petersburg in the Contemporary Russian
Cinema. Balabanov’s Brother Cinema. Balabanov’s Brother
Natalia Bratova 121 Natalia Bratova 121
In Search of the Grand: Pavel Krusanov In Search of the Grand: Pavel Krusanov
Audun J. Mørch 127 Audun J. Mørch 127
PART IV: Memory and Representation from Modernity to PART IV: Memory and Representation from Modernity to
Post-Modernity, from Totalitarianism to Post-Totalitarianism 139 Post-Modernity, from Totalitarianism to Post-Totalitarianism 139
History Textbooks in the Balkans: Representations and History Textbooks in the Balkans: Representations and
Conflict Conflict
Anamaria Dutceac Segesten 139 Anamaria Dutceac Segesten 139
A Chinese Virtual ‘Heimatmuseum’ – Old Beijing.net A Chinese Virtual ‘Heimatmuseum’ – Old Beijing.net
Michael Schoenhals 155 Michael Schoenhals 155
Memories of a Modernity-to-be. Some Reflections on Memories of a Modernity-to-be. Some Reflections on
South Africa’s Unresolved Dilemma South Africa’s Unresolved Dilemma
Oscar Hemer 173 Oscar Hemer 173
Memory as Documentary Fiction. Documentation in Memory as Documentary Fiction. Documentation in
Contemporary Russian Art Contemporary Russian Art
Charlotte Greve 185 Charlotte Greve 185
List of Contributors 199 List of Contributors 199
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The Poetics of Memory in Post-Totalitarian The Poetics of Memory in Post-Totalitarian
Narration: Introduction Narration: Introduction
Johanna Lindbladh Johanna Lindbladh
Why use the concept the poetics of memory? Are we using it in order to underline Why use the concept the poetics of memory? Are we using it in order to underline
our tendency to exaggerate the bright and happy memories of the past, while the our tendency to exaggerate the bright and happy memories of the past, while the
grey, everyday moments in our lives tend to sink into oblivion, and traumatic grey, everyday moments in our lives tend to sink into oblivion, and traumatic
events are repressed in our subconscious? Rather than referring to our nostalgic events are repressed in our subconscious? Rather than referring to our nostalgic
wish to poetisize the past, the use of poetics in relation to memory in this volume wish to poetisize the past, the use of poetics in relation to memory in this volume
will be connected to the fact that individual and collective memory is enigmatic, will be connected to the fact that individual and collective memory is enigmatic,
fragmentated, intimately connected to our senses and feelings, and thereby in need fragmentated, intimately connected to our senses and feelings, and thereby in need
of an alternative epistemology, challenging traditional definitions of knowledge and of an alternative epistemology, challenging traditional definitions of knowledge and
truth.1 The philosopher Mary Warnock claims that memory is ‘essentially emotional truth.1 The philosopher Mary Warnock claims that memory is ‘essentially emotional
in character’: ‘Since it can be called knowledge, its object is what is true. But the in character’: ‘Since it can be called knowledge, its object is what is true. But the
truths are of the heart not of the head’ (Warnock 1987, 90). Maria Holmgren Troy truths are of the heart not of the head’ (Warnock 1987, 90). Maria Holmgren Troy
also refers to the emotional character of memory, referring to a specific ‘mode of also refers to the emotional character of memory, referring to a specific ‘mode of
knowledge’ that is ‘non-cognitive, non-linear, and affective’ (Holmgren Troy 2007, knowledge’ that is ‘non-cognitive, non-linear, and affective’ (Holmgren Troy 2007,
50). One important aspect of this non-cognitive and affective character of memory 50). One important aspect of this non-cognitive and affective character of memory
is that it cannot be mediated objectively, like the mathematical truth 2+2=4, but has is that it cannot be mediated objectively, like the mathematical truth 2+2=4, but has
to be a part of the current context of remembering, the choice of words, metaphors, to be a part of the current context of remembering, the choice of words, metaphors,
mode of narration and so on. In his last substantial work Memory, History, Forgetting, mode of narration and so on. In his last substantial work Memory, History, Forgetting,
Paul Ricoeur describes memory in terms of a mental trip and claims, referring to Paul Ricoeur describes memory in terms of a mental trip and claims, referring to
Husserl, that memory cannot be represented directly, in a pure, unmediated way, Husserl, that memory cannot be represented directly, in a pure, unmediated way,
but always has to be the result of a process of remembering, in which distraction, but always has to be the result of a process of remembering, in which distraction,
associative and wishful thinking, cannot be separated from the actual memory of associative and wishful thinking, cannot be separated from the actual memory of
the past. P. J. Eakin, a prominent researcher within the field of narrative identity, the past. P. J. Eakin, a prominent researcher within the field of narrative identity,
takes a similar standpoint, claiming that the truth represented by memory and takes a similar standpoint, claiming that the truth represented by memory and
autobiographical texts is the result of an intimate combination of fiction and fact. autobiographical texts is the result of an intimate combination of fiction and fact.
However, it is important to underline that Eakin does not wish to dismiss the claim However, it is important to underline that Eakin does not wish to dismiss the claim
of truth in an autobiographical text, but asserts the need to identify an alternative of truth in an autobiographical text, but asserts the need to identify an alternative
truth, a truth that he defines in terms of an ‘autobiographical truth’ (Fictions in truth, a truth that he defines in terms of an ‘autobiographical truth’ (Fictions in
Autobiography 1985). Autobiography 1985).
1. Having dismissed methods of psychology concerned with the ability to describe personal memory, the 1. Having dismissed methods of psychology concerned with the ability to describe personal memory, the
psychologist Martin Billing refers to Bergson, who considered authors and poets better suited to the psychologist Martin Billing refers to Bergson, who considered authors and poets better suited to the
task: ‘As Henri Bergson argued, the conventional categories of psychologists are unsuitable vehicles task: ‘As Henri Bergson argued, the conventional categories of psychologists are unsuitable vehicles
for describing the fleeting, fragmentary and deeply personal qualities of inner experience: the skills of for describing the fleeting, fragmentary and deeply personal qualities of inner experience: the skills of
novelists or poets are better equipped for such a task’ (Billing 2006, 18). novelists or poets are better equipped for such a task’ (Billing 2006, 18).
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Like Ricoeur, Eakin claims that the intimate relation between fiction and memory Like Ricoeur, Eakin claims that the intimate relation between fiction and memory
could be explained by the fact that memory cannot be isolated to a fixed point in could be explained by the fact that memory cannot be isolated to a fixed point in
the past, but has to be considered both as a fragment of an actual perception in the past, but has to be considered both as a fragment of an actual perception in
the past, and as the result of a narrative process, evolving in present time, a process the past, and as the result of a narrative process, evolving in present time, a process
which is intimately connected with the individual’s attempt to create meaning in his which is intimately connected with the individual’s attempt to create meaning in his
or her life. Eakin writes: ‘I shall argue that autobiographical truth is not a fixed but or her life. Eakin writes: ‘I shall argue that autobiographical truth is not a fixed but
an evolving content in an intricate process of self-discovery and self-creation [...]’ an evolving content in an intricate process of self-discovery and self-creation [...]’
(Eakin 1985, 3). (Eakin 1985, 3).
Hence the study of memory texts such as autobiographies, testimonies and diaries, Hence the study of memory texts such as autobiographies, testimonies and diaries,
has to be related to both the documentary and poetic genres. This double extraction has to be related to both the documentary and poetic genres. This double extraction
of memory has resulted in a consensus within memory research, defining two main of memory has resulted in a consensus within memory research, defining two main
functions of memory. In his introduction to the anthology The Poetics of Memory, functions of memory. In his introduction to the anthology The Poetics of Memory,
Thomas Wägenbaur defines memory on the one hand as a storage and on the other Thomas Wägenbaur defines memory on the one hand as a storage and on the other
hand as a story. In agreement with current trends in memory research, he underlines hand as a story. In agreement with current trends in memory research, he underlines
the importance of the narrative and poetic dimensions of memory, in contrast to the the importance of the narrative and poetic dimensions of memory, in contrast to the
memory’s function as a storage of information from the past: memory’s function as a storage of information from the past:
The major achievement of memory is not to remember what has actually The major achievement of memory is not to remember what has actually
happened, but a constant distinction between recollection and forgetting. happened, but a constant distinction between recollection and forgetting.
In some sort of internal monologue the brain constantly tests viable network In some sort of internal monologue the brain constantly tests viable network
patterns, it tests the functionality of its versions of reality constructions, i. e. patterns, it tests the functionality of its versions of reality constructions, i. e.
its narratives (Wägenbaur 1998, 9). its narratives (Wägenbaur 1998, 9).
This anthology is comprised of articles on memory with an anthropological, This anthology is comprised of articles on memory with an anthropological,
sociological, philosophical, psychological as well as literary theoretical standpoint. sociological, philosophical, psychological as well as literary theoretical standpoint.
The poetics of memory is considered, on the one hand, in terms of art’s specific The poetics of memory is considered, on the one hand, in terms of art’s specific
ability to construct true images of the past (‘autobiographical truth’, ‘non-cognitive’, ability to construct true images of the past (‘autobiographical truth’, ‘non-cognitive’,
‘affective knowledge’), and, on the other hand, of the cultural and political process of ‘affective knowledge’), and, on the other hand, of the cultural and political process of
selection, in which structures of power and political interests contribute to creating selection, in which structures of power and political interests contribute to creating
grand narratives and myths, i. e. ‘poetical’ patterns, inclined to affect both the grand narratives and myths, i. e. ‘poetical’ patterns, inclined to affect both the
collective writing of history and individual remembering. The anthology is divided collective writing of history and individual remembering. The anthology is divided
into four parts, depicting four different theoretical and methodological perspectives into four parts, depicting four different theoretical and methodological perspectives
within this field of research. The first part, ‘Memory, narration and identity’, consists within this field of research. The first part, ‘Memory, narration and identity’, consists
of articles that examine the relationship between memory and identity, and to what of articles that examine the relationship between memory and identity, and to what
extent memory is a narrative construction with its origins in the individual’s wish extent memory is a narrative construction with its origins in the individual’s wish
to define a coherent identity. In the second part, ‘Individual memory in relation to define a coherent identity. In the second part, ‘Individual memory in relation
to economic and political interests’, individual memory is analysed in relation to to economic and political interests’, individual memory is analysed in relation to
cultural and political structures of power. The articles analyse various examples of the cultural and political structures of power. The articles analyse various examples of the
strong impact of the social environment on the activity of individual remembrance. strong impact of the social environment on the activity of individual remembrance.
In the third part, ‘Memory and myth in the arts’, the relationship between memory In the third part, ‘Memory and myth in the arts’, the relationship between memory
and art, the documentary and artistic genres is examined, raising such questions and art, the documentary and artistic genres is examined, raising such questions
as: To what extent are memory and historical writing dependent on the artistic as: To what extent are memory and historical writing dependent on the artistic
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depiction of the past? How does art affect our perception of reality? In the forth depiction of the past? How does art affect our perception of reality? In the forth
and final part, ‘Memory and representation from modernity to post-modernity, and final part, ‘Memory and representation from modernity to post-modernity,
from totalitarianism to post-totalitarianism’, the epistemological development of from totalitarianism to post-totalitarianism’, the epistemological development of
representation is considered in relation to the definition of memory, individual as representation is considered in relation to the definition of memory, individual as
well as collective. The crisis of representation in the post-modern context is related well as collective. The crisis of representation in the post-modern context is related
to the political and social transformation within totalitarian and post-totalitarian to the political and social transformation within totalitarian and post-totalitarian
countries such as China, South Africa and Russia. Questions are raised concerning countries such as China, South Africa and Russia. Questions are raised concerning
the difference/similarity between modernity and totalitarianism, post-modernity the difference/similarity between modernity and totalitarianism, post-modernity
and post-totalitarianism, focusing on the crisis of representation, on the one hand, and post-totalitarianism, focusing on the crisis of representation, on the one hand,
and the increasing fascination with individual memory and historical documents on and the increasing fascination with individual memory and historical documents on
the other. the other.
Memory, narration and identity Memory, narration and identity
Questions frequently asked by Slavists interested in modern culture and literature in Questions frequently asked by Slavists interested in modern culture and literature in
Eastern and Central Europe, revolve around the issue of identity in the post-Soviet Eastern and Central Europe, revolve around the issue of identity in the post-Soviet
era. The introductory article is devoted to this quest for a new identity in post-Soviet era. The introductory article is devoted to this quest for a new identity in post-Soviet
literature. Marina Balina analyses two Russian-Jewish childhood recollections literature. Marina Balina analyses two Russian-Jewish childhood recollections
published after the fall of the Soviet Union, namely Yuri Karabchievsky’s The published after the fall of the Soviet Union, namely Yuri Karabchievsky’s The
Life of Alexander Silber (1991) and Dina Rubina’s Apples from Shlitzbutter’s Garden Life of Alexander Silber (1991) and Dina Rubina’s Apples from Shlitzbutter’s Garden
(1992). In her article, Balina shows that both narratives are structured according (1992). In her article, Balina shows that both narratives are structured according
to an antinomymic relation between a happy and unhappy childhood respectively, to an antinomymic relation between a happy and unhappy childhood respectively,
an antinomy that she traces back to childhood recollections from pre-revolutionary an antinomy that she traces back to childhood recollections from pre-revolutionary
times, via Soviet time, and up to post-Soviet time. While pre-revolutionary childhood times, via Soviet time, and up to post-Soviet time. While pre-revolutionary childhood
recollections in Tolstoy’s spirit are depicted as paradisical, it became impossible in the recollections in Tolstoy’s spirit are depicted as paradisical, it became impossible in the
Soviet era to relate a privileged childhood that referred back to pre-revolutionary Soviet era to relate a privileged childhood that referred back to pre-revolutionary
times. Instead, unhappy childhood dominated Soviet autobiography and referred to times. Instead, unhappy childhood dominated Soviet autobiography and referred to
Gorky’s childhood recollections as a normative example. In her analysis, Balina claims Gorky’s childhood recollections as a normative example. In her analysis, Balina claims
that the frequently recurring silences and gaps, characteristic of Soviet autobiography, that the frequently recurring silences and gaps, characteristic of Soviet autobiography,
including Samuil Marshak’s childhood recollections, illustrate the fact that authors including Samuil Marshak’s childhood recollections, illustrate the fact that authors
were not allowed to recount a happy childhood from pre-revolutionary times. She were not allowed to recount a happy childhood from pre-revolutionary times. She
describes this method of silence and incompleteness as a discourse that makes describes this method of silence and incompleteness as a discourse that makes
possible an alternative reading, namely a discourse that encourages the reader to read possible an alternative reading, namely a discourse that encourages the reader to read
between the lines. The post-Soviet childhood recollection, in its turn, is described by between the lines. The post-Soviet childhood recollection, in its turn, is described by
Balina as an inversion of the Soviet autobiography. According to Balina, it is in the Balina as an inversion of the Soviet autobiography. According to Balina, it is in the
analysis of the collaboration and opposition between these various styles in Soviet analysis of the collaboration and opposition between these various styles in Soviet
and post-Soviet childhood recollections, that the painful quest for identity in post- and post-Soviet childhood recollections, that the painful quest for identity in post-
Soviet literature needs to be examined. Soviet literature needs to be examined.
The relationship between the narrative aspects of memory and the individual’s The relationship between the narrative aspects of memory and the individual’s
quest for identity is also addressed in Nicola King’s article, in which she analyses quest for identity is also addressed in Nicola King’s article, in which she analyses
several childhood recollections, among them those of Richard Wollheim, Andrew several childhood recollections, among them those of Richard Wollheim, Andrew
Motion and Hugo Hamilton. In her analysis, King describes the problems of Motion and Hugo Hamilton. In her analysis, King describes the problems of
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representation, showing how the authors illustrate in different ways ‘the (im) representation, showing how the authors illustrate in different ways ‘the (im)
possibility of reconstructing the memory of childhood “as it really was”’. King points possibility of reconstructing the memory of childhood “as it really was”’. King points
out the various literary strategies used by the authors in order to establish direct out the various literary strategies used by the authors in order to establish direct
contact with the past. Their goal, according to King, is to overcome the time that has contact with the past. Their goal, according to King, is to overcome the time that has
past, and to recall the original experiences from the past to the present, by creating past, and to recall the original experiences from the past to the present, by creating
a memory-text that is as pure and exact as possible. However, the authors do not a memory-text that is as pure and exact as possible. However, the authors do not
succeed in their attempts, and the Proustian ‘clean’ and ‘untouched’ experience from succeed in their attempts, and the Proustian ‘clean’ and ‘untouched’ experience from
the past remains inaccessible to them. Instead, the authors have to become reconciled the past remains inaccessible to them. Instead, the authors have to become reconciled
with the fact that the ‘original experience’ no longer exists, and has become a part of with the fact that the ‘original experience’ no longer exists, and has become a part of
the constantly ongoing narration that constitutes their lives and identity. From the the constantly ongoing narration that constitutes their lives and identity. From the
standpoint represtented by King’s article, the question as to whether it is possible standpoint represtented by King’s article, the question as to whether it is possible
to recall one’s childhood without the hindsight of a grown-up has to be answered to recall one’s childhood without the hindsight of a grown-up has to be answered
negatively. However, the question as to why these authors try so eagerly to regain a negatively. However, the question as to why these authors try so eagerly to regain a
pure memory of their childhood remains unanswered: What is the underlying reason pure memory of their childhood remains unanswered: What is the underlying reason
for this eager wish to depict an image of the past ‘as it really was’? Is it an expression for this eager wish to depict an image of the past ‘as it really was’? Is it an expression
of some kind of aversion towards the ever changing qualities of life? Could it be seen of some kind of aversion towards the ever changing qualities of life? Could it be seen
as a kind of protest against the irrevocable aspects of life? A chronophobic wish to as a kind of protest against the irrevocable aspects of life? A chronophobic wish to
stop time and actually recall the past into the present, not only as words and images, stop time and actually recall the past into the present, not only as words and images,
but as a reality? but as a reality?
These questions are also relevant in relation to Johanna Lindbladh’s article, where These questions are also relevant in relation to Johanna Lindbladh’s article, where
she explores the representation of traumatic memories and the witness’s ambivalent she explores the representation of traumatic memories and the witness’s ambivalent
attitude towards the act of representation. In her analysis of Svetlana Aleksievich’s attitude towards the act of representation. In her analysis of Svetlana Aleksievich’s
testimony Voices from Chernobyl’, based on more than 500 interviews with victims of testimony Voices from Chernobyl’, based on more than 500 interviews with victims of
the nuclear disaster in Chernobyl’, Lindbladh shows that the ambivalence towards the nuclear disaster in Chernobyl’, Lindbladh shows that the ambivalence towards
telling can be traced both to Aleksievich’s portrayal of the interviews, and to the telling can be traced both to Aleksievich’s portrayal of the interviews, and to the
aesthetic composition of the book as a whole. Lindbladh analyses this ambivalence aesthetic composition of the book as a whole. Lindbladh analyses this ambivalence
of telling by referring to Dori Laub’s theory of two opposite imperatives that tend of telling by referring to Dori Laub’s theory of two opposite imperatives that tend
to affect a traumatized witness: ‘The Imperative to Tell’ and ‘The Impossibility to affect a traumatized witness: ‘The Imperative to Tell’ and ‘The Impossibility
of Telling’. While the first imperative indicates that the witness has to narrate the of Telling’. While the first imperative indicates that the witness has to narrate the
traumatic past in order to survive, the second imperative conveys the fact that the traumatic past in order to survive, the second imperative conveys the fact that the
act of representation cannot ‘bring back the dead’. In other words, it is the limits of act of representation cannot ‘bring back the dead’. In other words, it is the limits of
representation that cause much of the witness’s reluctance to tell, as does the fact that representation that cause much of the witness’s reluctance to tell, as does the fact that
words cannot bring back an irrevocable past. words cannot bring back an irrevocable past.
Individual and cultural memory in relation to economic and Individual and cultural memory in relation to economic and
political interests political interests
While Lindbladh examines the representation of suffering by taking her standpoint While Lindbladh examines the representation of suffering by taking her standpoint
in the individual’s perception of time and memory, Vieda Skultans deplores the in the individual’s perception of time and memory, Vieda Skultans deplores the
representation of suffering in relation to the economic and political changes that representation of suffering in relation to the economic and political changes that
followed the decline of the Soviet Union. Interestingly, Lindbladh and Skultans followed the decline of the Soviet Union. Interestingly, Lindbladh and Skultans
come to different conclusions. While Lindbladh suggests that the possibility come to different conclusions. While Lindbladh suggests that the possibility
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of representing suffering increases in relation to the decline of the Soviet Union, of representing suffering increases in relation to the decline of the Soviet Union,
Skultans claims that more than fifteen years after the fall of the Soviet Union, the Skultans claims that more than fifteen years after the fall of the Soviet Union, the
possibility of individuals to express grief has been reduced, compared to the period possibility of individuals to express grief has been reduced, compared to the period
immediately following the social changes of 1991 and 1992. In a comparative study immediately following the social changes of 1991 and 1992. In a comparative study
of interview material from two perioids of recent Latvian history – the decline of of interview material from two perioids of recent Latvian history – the decline of
the Soviet Union 1991–1992 and more than fifteen years after the introduction the Soviet Union 1991–1992 and more than fifteen years after the introduction
of democracy and economic change 2006–2007 – Skultans explores how the of democracy and economic change 2006–2007 – Skultans explores how the
political context has affected both individuals’ depiction of their suffering and the political context has affected both individuals’ depiction of their suffering and the
perception of psychological illness within the medical profession. Skultans claims perception of psychological illness within the medical profession. Skultans claims
that during the first phase of independence (1991–92) individuals’ grief was seen that during the first phase of independence (1991–92) individuals’ grief was seen
as a manifestation of national and collective identity, something that is expressed in as a manifestation of national and collective identity, something that is expressed in
the interviews by frequent references to other groups’ suffering, such as biblical and the interviews by frequent references to other groups’ suffering, such as biblical and
literary references. This cultural memory functioned, according to Skultans, as a literary references. This cultural memory functioned, according to Skultans, as a
kind of comfort to the individuals who were suffering, and showed that they felt they kind of comfort to the individuals who were suffering, and showed that they felt they
were not alone in their grief (‘ideas of shared destiny’). Sixteen years later, however, were not alone in their grief (‘ideas of shared destiny’). Sixteen years later, however,
Skultans perceives a completely different pattern in her interview material, claiming Skultans perceives a completely different pattern in her interview material, claiming
that the former possibility of finding comfort in cultural memory had disappeared. that the former possibility of finding comfort in cultural memory had disappeared.
Instead, the liberal market economy had developed a new interpretation of grief and Instead, the liberal market economy had developed a new interpretation of grief and
psychic illness, namely not as an expression of social and economic circumstances, psychic illness, namely not as an expression of social and economic circumstances,
but exclusively as the result of the suffering individual’s insufficiency and lack of but exclusively as the result of the suffering individual’s insufficiency and lack of
willpower. willpower.
In another sociological study, based on interviews with people during the post- In another sociological study, based on interviews with people during the post-
Soviet era, Yulia Gradskova examines the concept of femininity, taking her Soviet era, Yulia Gradskova examines the concept of femininity, taking her
perspective from a study of motherhood, its conditions and shaping during the perspective from a study of motherhood, its conditions and shaping during the
1940s–1960s in the Soviet Union. In her article, Gradskova analyses interview 1940s–1960s in the Soviet Union. In her article, Gradskova analyses interview
material that she collected during the 1990s with a number of women who had material that she collected during the 1990s with a number of women who had
been young mothers during the period 1940–1960. Gradskova organizes her been young mothers during the period 1940–1960. Gradskova organizes her
material according to discourses on femininity and motherhood and her conclusion material according to discourses on femininity and motherhood and her conclusion
is that femininities were enacted through the intersections between social status, the is that femininities were enacted through the intersections between social status, the
economic situation, and the traditions or culture of the social environment. However, economic situation, and the traditions or culture of the social environment. However,
Gradskova draws attention to another aspect that partly challenges traditional Gradskova draws attention to another aspect that partly challenges traditional
discourses of motherhood, namely the fact that these women often had to guarantee discourses of motherhood, namely the fact that these women often had to guarantee
the survival of their families, which resulted in a kind of entrepreneurship not always the survival of their families, which resulted in a kind of entrepreneurship not always
compatible with discourses of motherhood. compatible with discourses of motherhood.
Like Skultans, Irina Sandomirskaia illustrates the impact of political and cultural Like Skultans, Irina Sandomirskaia illustrates the impact of political and cultural
power structures on the representation of individual memory. In her description of power structures on the representation of individual memory. In her description of
the intelligentsia’s reception (and distortion) of the simple countrywoman Kiseleva’s the intelligentsia’s reception (and distortion) of the simple countrywoman Kiseleva’s
autobiographical notes from the period of glasnost’ until the decline of the Soviet autobiographical notes from the period of glasnost’ until the decline of the Soviet
Union, Sandomirskaia shows how one individual’s destiny becomes the scene of Union, Sandomirskaia shows how one individual’s destiny becomes the scene of
the intelligentsia’s search for a new identity in post-Soviet Russia, and an alibi for the intelligentsia’s search for a new identity in post-Soviet Russia, and an alibi for
its former life in the Soviet Union. Sandomirskaia interprets Novyi Mir’s editing of its former life in the Soviet Union. Sandomirskaia interprets Novyi Mir’s editing of
Kiseleva’s autobiography as the result of the liberal intelligentsia’s ambition to swear Kiseleva’s autobiography as the result of the liberal intelligentsia’s ambition to swear
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