The Perception of Visual Information

419 Pages·1997·29.09 MB·English

by  Peter F. Sharp, Russell Philips (auth.), William R. Hendee, Peter N. T. Wells (eds.)

The Perception of Visual Information
SecondEdition
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
William R. Hendee
Peter N.T. Wells
Editors
The Perception
ofVisual
Information
Second Edition
With 170 lllustrations
Springer
William R. Hendee Peter N.T. Wells
Medical College of Wisconsin Bristol General Hospital
8701 Watertown Plank Road Guinea Street
Milwaukee, WI 53226 Bristol B51 65Y
USA United Kingdom
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Perception of visual information / [edited by] William R. Hendee,
Peter N.T. Wells - - 2nd ed.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4612-7306-6 ISBN 978-1-4612-1836-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4612-1836-4
1. Vision. 2. Visual perception. 3. Computer vision.
1. Hendee, William R., II. Wells, P.N.T. (Peter Neil Temple)
[DNLM: 1. Visual Perception, 2. Vision--physiology. 3. Image
Processing, Computer-Assisted. WW 105 P4285 1997]
QP475.P361997
152.16--dc21
DNLM/DLC
for Library of Congress 97-10231
CIP
Printed on aeid-free paper.
© 1993,1997 by Springer Seience+Business Media New York
Originally published by Springer-Verlag New York, Ine. in 1997
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 2nd edition 1997
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Produetion eoordinated by Blaek Hole Publishing and managed by Terry Komak; manu
faeturing supervised by Jacqui Ashri.
Typeset by J. KaipingIBlack Hole Publishing, Berkely, CA.
987654321
ISBN 978-1-4612-7306-6
Preface to the Second Edition
Thefirst edition ofThe Perception ofVisual Information was published in 1993.
Interest in the book exceeded our expectations and those of the publisher, and
the first printing wasquickly soldout. As wecontemplatedasecondprinting, we
realizedthatwe hadthe opportunity toprepareasecondedition withrevisions to
update each ofthe chapters. We were also eager to add a chapter on virtual and
augmented reality and the present and future contributions ofthese concepts to
clinicalmedicine.Althoughitisraretohaveeditionsofanadvancedtextseparated
byonly4years,wedecidedinfavorofasecondeditionbecauseoftherapiditywith
which the understanding and modeling ofhuman vision is proceeding. We hope
only that the reception accorded this edition is somewhere close to the response
to thefirst edition.
Inthisnewbook,alloftheauthorsoftheearliereditionreviewedtheirchapters.
Afew addedonlyoccasionalparagraphsscatteredthroughouttheirchapters,while
othersmademanyrevisions andaddedmajorsections.Thechapteronvirtual and
augmentedreality isavaluableadditiontothebook,andprovidesinsightintohow
this technology promises to profoundly impact both diagnostic and therapeutic
medicine,butinalldisciplinesstronglydependentontheuseofvisualinformation
for orientation and guidance.
Preparingthissecondeditionhasbeenapleasurableexperiencefortheeditors.
Theresultisabookthatwehopewillhelpthereaderunderstandandappreciatethe
currentstateofknowledgeabouttheperception,interpretation and understanding
ofvisualinformation.
William R. Hendee,Ph.D. PeterN.T.Wells,Ph.D.,D.Sc.,F.Eng.
Milwaukee,Wisconsin, USA Bristol,u.K.
March 1, 1997
Preface to the First Edition
Human knowledge is primarily the product ofexperiences acquired through in
teractionsofoursenseswithoursurroundings. Ofall thesenses, visionistheone
relied on most heavily by most people for sensory input about the environment.
Visual interactions can be divided into three processes: (1) detection of visual
information; (2) recognition ofthe "external source" ofthe information; and (3)
interpretationofthesignificanceoftheinformation.Theseprocessesusuallyoccur
sequentially, although there isconsiderableinterdependenceamongthem.
With ourstrong dependenceon theprocesses ofvisual interactions, we might
assume thatthey are wellcharacterizedandunderstood. Nothingcouldbefurther
from the truth. Human vision remains an enigma, in spite of speculations by
philosophers for centuries, and, more recently, ofattention from physicists and
cognitive andexperimental psychologists. How we see, and how we know what
we see, remains an unsolved mystery that challenges some ofthe most creative
scientistsandcognitivespecialists.
Thepresentationofinformationforvisualinterpretationiscriticaltoalmostev
eryendeavorofmodem technology,from spaceexploration and military surveil
lance to process engineering and diagnostic and therapeutic medicine. Today
visual images can be presented in almost any format desirable, with enhanced
spatial detail, altered contrast and color scales, suppressed statistical noise, and
sharpenededges.Thechallengeisnotindiscoveringnewwaystopresentimages;
itis instead in understanding how visual information can bedisplayed sothat its
useisoptimizedfortheobserver.
This text examines what is known or thought about the process of human
vision,andhowvisualimagescanbepresentedtofacilitatetheirusebyobservers.
Itbeginsbyfocusing ontheanatomicalandphysiologicalpropertiesoftheeyeas
"thewindowthroughwhichthemindperceivestheworldaroundit," andexamines
thecurrentstateofknowledgeconcerninghow visualinformation isdetectedand
recognized. Several models of human vision are described, and approaches to
quantifying the visual responses ofindividuals areconsidered. Theories are then
exploredofhow visual information is interpreted and the cognitiveresponses of
observersto imagesarediscussed.
viii PrefacetotheFirstEdition
As explained in the second half of the book, images can be presented in a
multitudeofformats, with virtuallyeverycharacteristicoftheimagessusceptible
tomodification according to the wishes ofthe observer. Imagemanipulation has,
infact,becomealmostascientificdisciplineinitself,andsomeresearchersdevote
their time and energy full-time to this area. This research effort is important,
becausedecisionsinavarietyofareas,includingairtravel,productmanufacturing
and medical diagnosis, depend upon the presentation and interpretation ofvisual
information, often with the assistance ofcomputers and without much, if any,
direct human intervention. The flexibility of image presentation gives rise to
the need for optimized environments for the display and interpretation ofvisual
information. The challenge of workstation environments for interactions with
visual information isexaminedin the penultimate chapterofthe book.
This textis written for anyone with an interest in the visual sciences who has
a background in science orengineering atthe undergraduate level. Authors have
beenencouragedto writebeyondtheirspecializedareasofresearchinaneffortto
developprinciplesandthemesthatnotonlycrossinterdisciplinaryboundaries,but
also penetrate barriers between different applications such as space exploration,
manufacturing, surveillance, air science and medicine. Although the authors are
recognized experts in their own disciplines, they have been chosen for this text
because oftheir knowledge about human vision and theirability to write clearly
andconcisely aboutacomplex and technical topic.
In preparingthis book, wehavebeen ablyassisted bymany persons, including
Ms. Diane Reuterand Ms. Terri Komar. Specialthanks go toMs. Vickie Grosso,
oureditional assistant; without herdiligent nurturing ofthe book, its editors and
its authors, the project would have taken longer and been much less enjoyable.
Ms. JanFishwas responsibleforeditorialworkin theU.K.
The editors have gained considerable pleasure and knowledge from the expe
rience ofputting this text together. We hope that readers will share our pleasure
in part, and that the text will help them appreciate the challenges and rewards of
exploringthemysteries ofhuman vision.
William R. Hendee, Ph.D. PeterN.T.Wells,Ph.D.,D.Sc.,F.Eng.
Milwaukee,Wisconsin, USA Bristol, U.K.
August5, 1991
Acknowledgments
Chapter 4 Acknowledgments. Most of the ideas are based on the "school" of
KoenderinkandvanDoornandontheirpioneeringand profoundwork. Wethank
Blom, Bel, van Darnrne, Frens, Bakker, Bookelman, Salden, and Viergever for
many contributions, implementations, and discussions. This work was supported
bythe DutchMinistry ofEconomicAffairs GrantNo. [V3-3DM]-50249/89-01.
Chapter9Acknowledgments. Supported in part by National Institutes ofHealth
grantsROI CA42453and ROI CA62362.
Contents
PrefacetotheSecondEdition. v
PrefacetotheFirstEdition vii
Acknowledgments ix
Contributors . . . . . . .xvii
1 PhysiologicalOptics 1
PeterF. SharpandRussell Philips
1.1 Introduction .. . . . . . . 1
1.2 OpticalAnatomyoftheEye I
1.3 AberrationsoftheEye . . . 3
1.3.1 SphericalAberration 3
1.3.2 ChromaticAberration. 4
1.3.3 ObliqueAstigmatismandComa 4
1.3.4 CurvatureofField 4
1.4 TheVisualPathways . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.1 Photoreceptors......... 4
1.4.2 Bipolar,Ganglion,Horizontal,andAmacrineCells 5
1.4.3 LateralGeniculateNucleus 12
1.4.4 PrimaryVisualCortex . . . . . . 13
1.5 MechanismsofViewing . 19
1.6 ColorVision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.7 PhysicalPerformanceoftheVisualSystem 24
1.7.1 SpectralSensitivity . . . . . . . . 24
1.7.2 IncrementalBrightnessSensitivity 24
1.7.3 SpatialResponse .. 25
1.7.4 TemporalResponse. 25
1.7.5 DynamicRange . 26
1.8 InformationTransferRates 27
1.9 References . 30
2 DetectionofVisionInformation 33
CharlesA. Kelsey
2.1 Introduction . 33
2.2 EarlyTheoriesofVision 33
2.2.1 TheEvilEye . . 34
2.3 SimpleExperiments .. 35
2.3.1 InvertedImageontheRetina 35
2.3.2 BlindSpot . . . . . . . . . 36
xii Contents
2.3.3 HorizontalandVerticalDetectors .... 37
2.3.4 MachBands .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.5 TheCraik,Comsweet,O'BrienIllusion. 38
2.3.6 HermanHeringGrid 39
2.3.7 TheMoonIllusion ... 40
2.4 AdaptationandAfterImages . . 42
2.4.1 StimulusandSensation . 44
2.5 Three-DimensionalVision . . . 44
2.6 StereoscopicViewing . . . . . . 45
2.7 Cross-EyedTechniqueofThree-DimensionalViewing 47
2.8 ModelsoftheVisualSystem . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.8.1 FeatureDetection . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.8.2 TheBottom-UpandTop-DownModels . 49
2.8.3 IdealObserverStudies . . . . . . . . . 49
2.8.4 ComputationalModels . . . . . . . . . 50
2.8.5 PreattentiveandAttentiveProcessingTextons . 51
2.9 References . 53
3 QuantificationofVisualCapability 57
ArthurP. GinsburgandWilliamR. Hendee
3.1 Introduction .... 57
3.2 VisualAcuity. . .. 57
3.3 ContrastSensitivity . 60
3.4 VisualPhysiology 60
3.5 VisualFiltering . . . 61
3.5.1 Sine-WaveGratings . 61
3.5.2 ContrastSensitivityFunction 63
3.5.3 ChannelFilterImages .,. 64
3.6 CausesofVisionLoss . 67
3.7 DetectionandIdentificationofVisualSignals. 67
3.7.1 MeasuringContrastSensitivity .... 69
3.7.2 Sine-WaveGratingandLowContrastLetterCharts 71
3.7.3 TestModalitiesforContrastSensitivity .. 78
3.7.4 InterpretingContrastSensitivity:EyeView 79
3.7.5 GlareTesting . 81
3.7.6 ApplicationstoImaging 82
3.8 Conclusions 83
3.9 References . 83
4 AMultiscaleGeometricModelofHumanVision 87
BartM.TerHaarRomeny andLucFlorack
4.1 Introduction . 87
4.2 Scale-Space . 90
4.3 ScaledDifferentialOperators 96
4.4 ImageStructure. . . . . . . 98
4.5 DescriptionoftheEarlyVisionSystem 99
4.6 DifferentialInvariants · 103
4.7 Applications · 115
4.8 Discussion · 120
4.9 References · 124