The Origins of Child Sexual Abuse

227 Pages·2012·1.43 MB·English

The Origins of Child Sexual Abuse:
An Analysis of Developmental and Situational Factors

Nadine Kylie McKillop
BA (CCJ), BBehSc, BPsych (Hons)

School of Criminology and Criminal Justice
Arts, Education and Law
Griffith University

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Criminology and Criminal Justice

October 2011
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ABSTRACT
Using an integrated theoretical approach, this research drew upon psychological
and criminological perspectives to investigate the origins of child sexual abuse through
the person-situation framework. More specifically, it investigated early attachment-
related vulnerabilities that may predispose individuals towards engaging in sexually
abusive behaviour, and situational factors (e.g., opportunity structures and precipitating
conditions) that enable and evoke such behaviour, in a sample of convicted adult male
child-sex offenders.
First, developmental factors were examined. Overall, offenders reported a higher
proportion of insecure, than secure, childhood attachment. Offenders’ parent-child
attachment relationships were characterised by ‘affectionless control’, reflecting low
parental care and high overprotection and control. Offenders reported significantly less
secure attachment with their fathers than with their mothers. Weak to moderate
continuity between childhood attachment and trait (i.e., general) adult attachment was
found, with insecure attachment more stable than secure attachment. Less secure
attachment to mothers, as well as trait adult attachment anxiety and avoidance were
associated lower self-control. Together these findings suggest that early attachment
problems may impede effective processes for social cognitive development, and in turn,
intrapersonal and interpersonal functioning both during, and subsequent to, early
childhood. These vulnerabilities may increase a person’s proclivities towards engaging
in anti-social (including sexually abusive) behaviour.
Second, a descriptive analysis was conducted on the situational dimensions of
the onset sexual abuse incident. Overall, offenders reported a late offence-onset age (31
to 40 years) and offending against victims with whom they already had an existing,
caretaking relationship, most commonly girls. The abuse incidents typically occurred
within the realm of everyday routine activities: most incidents occurred within a
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domestic setting and at times during which the victim and offender were most likely to
be interacting with one another, oftentimes unsupervised. On the whole, an absence of
entrenched sexual attraction to children was reported. Further, little forethought,
planning and effort to engage the child in sexual activity and avoid victim disclosure
were reported. These findings provide tentative support for the more proximal role of
situational factors in facilitating sexually abusive behaviour and for the utility of
situational crime prevention models (e.g., rational choice and routine activities
approaches) for informing current prevention initiatives.
Third, conceptual ideas concerning the interaction between distal (i.e.,
individual-level vulnerabilities) and proximal (i.e., situational) factors in evoking sexual
abusive behaviour for the first time were explored. Overall, offenders commonly
reported relationship, financial and sexual problems in the weeks preceding sexual
offence onset and most employed avoidance strategies (e.g., isolation, drug and alcohol
abuse) in response to these problems. They typically reported feelings of loneliness and
depression, as well as intoxication immediately prior to sexual contact. For offenders
who were in an adult intimate relationship prior to their onset sexual offence their state
adult attachment (i.e., offenders’ attachment orientation in the period immediately
preceding onset) was also measured. Childhood attachment problems were more clearly
reflected in state rather than trait adult attachment. These offenders reported significant
state increases in avoidant attachment and their onset offence was more likely to involve
a female familial victim. These findings suggest that early attachment vulnerabilities
may not always manifest as stable adult attachment problems, but instead emerge in the
context of relationship and other life problems, and thus, indirectly support theoretical
propositions that acute or transient attachment problems precipitate sexual abuse
behaviour.
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In light of these findings opportunities for theory advancement were considered.
Applied implications were suggested from a public health model perspective including:
(1) primary prevention initiatives (e.g., community education; public awareness
campaigns; reducing opportunity; and creating safe environments), (2) secondary
prevention initiatives (e.g., attachment-informed early intervention programs and
offender support lines), and (3) tertiary prevention initiatives (e.g., risk assessment and
treatment models). Finally, methodological limitations were addressed and future
research directions proposed.
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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any
university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material
previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made
in the thesis itself.

___________________________ ____/____/____
Nadine McKillop Date
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................i
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ..............................................................................iv
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ x
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS ............................................. xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1
1.1 Rationale .............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Aims and Objectives ........................................................................................... 5
1.3 Scope of the Study .............................................................................................. 7
1.4 Overview of Document ....................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................... 10
2.1 Developmental Factors ..................................................................................... 10
2.1.1 Attachment theory ........................................................................................... 11
2.1.2 Attachment and its relevance to human development, adaptation and
functioning across the lifespan. ................................................................................ 13
2.1.3 Attachment and self-restraint .......................................................................... 28
2.1.4 Attachment stability and change ..................................................................... 32
2.1.5 Summary of developmental factors ................................................................. 33
2.2 Situational Factors............................................................................................ 35
2.2.1 Current limitations ........................................................................................... 36
2.2.2 Situational dimensions of child sexual abuse onset ........................................ 37
2.3 Summary ........................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 3: METHOD .............................................................................................. 51
3.1 Participants ....................................................................................................... 51
3.2 Measures ............................................................................................................ 53
3.3 Procedure .......................................................................................................... 57
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS .............................................................................................. 61
4.1 Reliability and Validity Analyses .................................................................... 61
4.2 Offender Development ..................................................................................... 65
4.2.1 Aims and hypotheses ....................................................................................... 65
4.2.2 Analyses .......................................................................................................... 66
4.2.3 Discussion........................................................................................................ 70
4.3 Situational Dimensions of the Onset Sexual Offence .................................... 76
4.3.1 Aims ................................................................................................................ 76
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4.3.2 Analyses .......................................................................................................... 77
4.3.3 Discussion........................................................................................................ 92
4.4 Examining the Person-Situation Interaction at Sexual Abuse Onset .......... 98
4.4.1 Aims and hypotheses ....................................................................................... 98
4.4.2 Analyses .......................................................................................................... 99
4.4.3 Discussion...................................................................................................... 104
CHAPTER 5: GENERAL DISCUSSION ................................................................ 109
5.1 Summary of Findings ..................................................................................... 109
5.1.1 Who is involved? ........................................................................................... 109
5.1.2 When and where does it occur? ..................................................................... 115
5.1.3 What happens?............................................................................................... 118
5.1.4 How does it happen? ..................................................................................... 121
5.2 Theory Advancement ..................................................................................... 124
5.3 Applied Implications ...................................................................................... 127
5.3.1 Primary and secondary prevention ................................................................ 127
5.3.2 Tertiary prevention ........................................................................................ 135
5.4 Limitations ...................................................................................................... 137
5.5 Directions for Future Research ..................................................................... 139
APPENDICES .............................................................................................................. 143
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 181
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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Adult attachment types (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991)……..………....22
Table 4.1: Test-retest reliability of attachment, self-control and abuse onset
variables........................................................................................................63
Table 4.2: Intercorrelations among maternal and paternal childhood attachment and
adult trait and state attachment ratings…................................................….64
Table 4.3: Mean (SD) childhood and adult attachment ratings......................................67
Table 4.4: Attachment classification from childhood to adulthood (%)........................69
Table 4.5: Offender age at sexual offence onset (%)………………………...........…..78
Table 4.6: Nature of victim-offender relationship (%)..................................................79
Table 4.7: Length of victim-offender relationship prior to onset abuse incident (%)…80
Table 4.8: Victim age and gender (%)………………….......…………………….........81
Table 4.9: Onset offence location (%) ……………………...……………………........82
Table 4.10: Activities engaged in with child immediately prior to onset (%)…………84
Table 4.11: Reasons for being alone with child.............................................................85
Table 4.12: Presence of sexual thoughts prior to the onset sexual offence (%).............87
Table 4.13: Reasons leading to sexual thoughts about the child (%).............................87
Table 4.14: Level of forethought prior to the onset sexual offence (%).........................88
Table 4.15: Level of planning prior to the onset sexual offence (%).............................89

Table 4.16: Strategies used to obtain child’s compliance (%).......................................90

Table 4.17: Length of sexual contact (%).......................................................................90

Table 4.18: Strategies to avoid the child from disclosing the sexual contact (%)..........91
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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: The onset sexual offence through the person-situation framework.............47
Figure 4.1: Frequencies of paternal bonding styles (%)……………..........……….…..68
Figure 4.2: Adult attachment classifications..................................................................68
Figure 4.3: Offence timing by age categories (%).........................................................83
Figure 4.4: Sexual orientation at sexual offence onset..................................................86
Figure 4.5: Stressors within offenders’ life in the month prior to sexual offence
onset..........................................................................................................101
Figure 4.6: Stress reduction strategies..........................................................................102
Figure 4.7: State feelings and behaviour immediately prior to onset sexual
offence......................................................................................................103
Figure 4.8: Mean trait and state attachment…………………….......…......................104
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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A: Data Sheet………………………...............………................................144
Appendix B: Questionnaire.……………………......................................…………...148
Appendix C: Participant Information Sheet…………………...........………..........…175
Appendix D: Participant Consent Form………………………...........……………....179