The Oil Palm (World Agriculture Series)

608 Pages·2003·9.11 MB·English

by  R. H. V. Corley

The Oil Palm
Fourth edition
R.H.V. Corley and P.B. Tinker

The Oil Palm

The Oil Palm
Fourth edition
R.H.V. Corley and P.B. Tinker
© 2003 by Blackwell Science Ltd, Fourth edition published 2003 by Blackwell Science Ltd
a Blackwell Publishing Company Third edition published 1988
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Contents
Preface to the fourth edition xxi
Preface to the third edition xxii
Preface to the second edition xxii
Preface to the first edition xxiii
Acknowledgements xxiv
Abbreviations xxvi
1. The origin and development ofthe oil palm industry 1
1.1 Origin ofthe oil palm 1
1.1.1 Physical evidence 1
1.1.2 Historical evidence 1
1.1.3 Natural habitat 2
1.2 The oil palm in Africa 2
1.2.1 Geographical distribution 2
1.2.2 African palm groves 3
1.2.3 Early trade 3
1.2.4 Development, use and improvement ofthe African palm groves 4
1.3 Development ofthe oil palm plantation industry 6
1.3.1 The African plantation industry 6
1.3.2 The Deli palm 6
1.3.3 The Asian plantation industry 7
1.4 World-wide development ofthe industry, 1950–2001 7
1.4.1 General 7
1.4.2 Price structures and competitiveness 12
1.4.2.1 Changes in the past 12
1.4.2.2 Future changes 13
1.4.2.3 Competition between regions 13
1.4.2.4 Competition between products 14
1.4.3 Single-country developments 15
1.4.3.1 Indonesia 15
1.4.3.2 Malaysia 16
1.4.3.3 Other Asian countries 18
1.4.3.4 Nigeria 19
1.4.3.5 Democratic Republic ofthe Congo 20
1.4.3.6 The Ivory Coast 20
1.4.3.7 Other West African countries 20
1.4.3.8 Brazil 20
1.4.3.9 Colombia 21
1.4.3.10 Costa Rica 21
1.4.3.11 Ecuador 21
1.4.3.12 Other South and Central American countries 21
v
vi Contents
1.5 Development methods 21
1.5.1 Main mechanisms ofoil palm development 21
1.5.2 Plantations 22
1.5.3 Smallholders 22
1.5.4 Research 23
1.6 Trade in and use ofoil palm products 24
1.6.1 Trade in oil palm products 24
1.6.2 Traditional uses ofoil palm products 25
1.6.3 New uses ofpalm oil 25
1.6.3.1 As oleochemicals 25
1.6.3.2 As biomass and internal combustion fuels 25
1.6.4 The conflict over ‘tropical oils’ 26
2. The classification and morphology ofthe oil palm 27
2.1 Classification ofoil palms 27
2.2 The African oil palm, Elaeis guineensisJacq. 27
2.2.1 Morphology and growth 28
2.2.1.1 The seed 28
2.2.1.2 The seedling 30
2.2.1.3 Development ofthe stem and stem apex 31
2.2.1.4 The leaf 33
2.2.1.5 The root system 35
2.2.1.6 Oil palm chromosomes 37
2.2.2 Flowering and fruiting 37
2.2.2.1 Inflorescences 37
2.2.2.2 The female inflorescence and flower 42
2.2.2.3 The male inflorescence and flower 42
2.2.2.4 Mixed inflorescences 43
2.2.2.5 Pollination 44
2.2.2.6 The fruit 45
2.2.2.7 The fruit bunch 46
2.3 The American oil palm, Elaeis oleifera(HBK) Cortes 48
2.3.1 Distribution 48
2.3.2 Morphology 48
2.3.3 Uses 50
2.4 The Elaeis guineensis(cid:2)Elaeis oleiferahybrid 50
3. The climate and soils ofthe oil palm-growing regions 53
3.1 General 53
3.2 Climate 53
3.2.1 Temperature 53
3.2.2 Rainfall, evaporation and water balance 56
3.2.2.1 Evapotranspiration 56
3.2.2.2 The water balance and soil water 59
3.2.2.3 Water deficits 60
3.2.3 Water relations and palm yield 63
3.2.4 Radiation and its effects 64
3.3 Total climate and oil palm growth 66
3.3.1 Climatic requirements for the oil palm 66
3.3.2 Longer term weather variations 70
3.3.3 Country and region experience 70
Contents vii
3.4 Soils 71
3.4.1 Soil classification in the equatorial tropics 71
3.4.1.1 Types ofclassification 71
3.4.1.2 Current general-purpose classifications 71
3.4.1.3 Soil classification in South-east Asia 72
3.4.2 Soils characteristics that are important for the oil palm 74
3.4.2.1 System ofOlivin 74
3.4.2.2 System ofParamananthan 75
3.4.3 Soil characteristics that are unfavourable for the oil palm 75
3.4.3.1 Rooting depth and density 75
3.4.3.2 Poorly drained (hydromorphic) soils 76
3.4.3.3 Acid sulfate soils 77
3.4.3.4 Saline soils 77
3.4.3.5 Lateritic soils 77
3.4.3.6 Deep sandy soils 77
3.4.3.7 Peat soils 77
3.4.3.8 Hilly and sloping soils 79
3.4.3.9 Volcanic ash soils 79
3.4.3.10 Very weathered and leached soils 79
3.5 Soils ofthe oil palm regions 80
3.5.1 Soils ofAsia 80
3.5.1.1 Malaysian soils 80
3.5.1.2 Indonesian soils 81
3.5.2 Soils ofAfrica 81
3.5.2.1 Nigerian soils 81
3.5.2.2 Other West African soils 84
3.5.2.3 Soils ofthe Democratic Republic ofthe Congo 84
3.5.3 Soils ofAmerica 86
3.6 Land classification 88
4. Growth, flowering and yield 89
4.1 Analysis ofplant growth 89
4.1.1 Background 89
4.1.1.1 History ofplant growth analysis 89
4.1.1.2 Modern concepts 90
4.1.1.3 Factors limiting growth 90
4.1.2 Dry matter production 91
4.1.2.1 Early work on oil palm 91
4.1.2.2 Standing biomass 92
4.1.2.3 Root biomass 92
4.1.3 Non-destructive methods ofmeasurement 93
4.1.3.1 Leafarea 94
4.1.3.2 Leafdry weight 94
4.1.3.3 Trunk dry weight increment 94
4.1.3.4 Bunch dry weight 95
4.1.3.5 Conclusions 95
4.1.4 Components ofdry matter production 95
4.1.4.1 Incident radiation 95
4.1.4.2 Light interception 95
4.1.4.3 Photosynthesis and the conversion coefficient 97
4.1.4.4 Partitioning ofdry matter 99
viii Contents
4.2 Vegetative growth and partitioning ofdry matter 99
4.2.1 Vegetative growth 99
4.2.2 Partitioning between vegetative growth and bunch production 101
4.2.2.1 Young palms 101
4.2.2.2 Fruiting palms 102
4.2.2.3 Short-term fluctuation in bunch dry matter requirements 103
4.2.2.4 Trunk storage 103
4.2.3 Conclusions 103
4.3 Environmental and management factors 104
4.3.1 Effects ofplanting density 104
4.3.2 Effects offertilisers 106
4.3.3 Water 106
4.3.4 Temperature 109
4.3.5 Palm age 109
4.3.6 Pruning and defoliation 110
4.3.7 Inflorescence removal 111
4.3.8 Genetic variation 111
4.4 Flowering 113
4.4.1 Stages in inflorescence development 114
4.4.2 Fruiting activity 114
4.4.3 Inflorescence initiation 115
4.4.4 Sex ratio 116
4.4.5 Inflorescence abortion 118
4.4.6 Bunch failure 121
4.4.7 Bunch weight 121
4.4.7.1 Fruit set 121
4.4.7.2 Other components ofbunch weight 123
4.4.7.3 Times ofdetermination ofbunch weight components 124
4.4.8 Rates ofinflorescence and bunch development 124
4.4.9 Conclusions 125
4.5 Yield 125
4.5.1 Yield ofbunches 125
4.5.2 Oil content ofthe bunch 126
4.5.3 Effects ofclimate and weather on yield ofbunches 126
4.5.4 Yield forecasting 127
4.5.5 Crop modelling 127
5. Selection and breeding 133
5.1 History ofselection 133
5.1.1 Indonesia and Malaysia 134
5.1.1.1 Deli durain Sumatra 134
5.1.1.2 Deli durain Malaysia 136
5.1.1.3 Teneraandpisiferain Sumatra 138
5.1.1.4 Teneraandpisiferain Malaysia 140
5.1.2 Congo 140
5.1.3 West Africa 141
5.1.3.1 Ivory Coast and Benin 141
5.1.3.2 Nigeria 142
5.1.3.3 Cameroon 143
5.1.4 Latin America 144
5.1.5 The emergence ofthe dura(cid:2)pisiferacross 144
5.1.6 Current breeding and seed production programmes 145