The Οἶκτος of Achilles: Reinterpreting Pity in the Iliad By Will Milvaney Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Keyne Cheshire for his endless support in this lengthy process. His constant guidance and encouragement gave me the confidence to achieve my goal, and the perseverance to never be satisfied with my work. It is because of him that I was able to complete this paper and, more importantly, that I was able to discover the truly endless gifts that the Iliad has to offer. I would also like to thank Dr. Drew Keller and Dr. Stephanie Russell, who inspired in me a passion for the Classics that has never faltered. They helped set me on this path and, while I still cannot tell where it will ultimately lead, I am forever grateful to them. Finally, I thank my wonderful parents. They have supported me and stuck by me from the very beginning, teaching me never to give up, and to expect the best from myself. Their love and encouragement is present in everything I do. I would also like to dedicate this work to my grandfather. Even if he had little clue about Ancient Greece, he taught me to be kind and dedicated in all aspects of life. I’m quite sure that if Achilles had been lucky enough to have him, he would have learned to feel pity and sympathy after all. ii Table of Contents I. An Introduction: Pity in the Iliad 1 II. Ἔλεος 13 III. Οἶκτος 27 IV. Reframing Achilles 45 Works Consulted 62 iii I. An Introduction: Pity in the Iliad Although there is not nearly as much scholarship about pity in the Iliad as there is concerning other topics, such as the essence of the Homeric hero or Achilles’ μῆνις (rage), there are still a number of scholars who have analyzed this subject, at least tangentially. In general, these scholars have one of two main goals. Some want to prove the existence of an individual poet, a singular Homer who created and shaped this work.1 To do so, they analyze overarching emotional arcs to establish a grand thematic structure, both complex and unified enough to point to a single-‐ minded creator. They argue that such a perfectly balanced and subtly coherent text, especially with regard to the emotional journeys of both character and audience, must imply a single author or organizer at some point in the creation of the poem we have today. Other scholars wish to understand the nature of pathos in the Iliad, why the story inspires modern audiences so powerfully and how it would have affected the ancient Greeks.2 All of these scholars, then, are more concerned with pity as an abstract concept, a unifying theme that binds and transforms characters and motifs, than they are with specific moments of pity within the narrative. A few do treat the specific language,3 namely the three main verbs generally thought to denote pity: ἐλεέω, ἐλεαίρω, and οἰκτείρω. But in this area of detailed linguistic analysis, I have found scholarship treating these words per se to be severely lacking. 1 See, for example, Ingalls, “Structural Unity of the Iliad”; and Kim, The Pity of Achilles. 2 See, for example, Conley, “Pity and Poetic Justice in the Iliad”; and Scott, “Pity and Pathos in Homer.” 3 See Kim, The Pity of Achilles; and Prauscello, “The Language of Pity”; and Scott, “Pity and Pathos in Homer.” 1 The reason is clear: almost every scholar, translator, and dictionary considers these words to be synonymous. Even the few who attempt to discern subtle distinctions between them do so relatively cursorily, and do not find particularly significant results.4 This is where my study will fit into the general scholarly field. I find this assumption of synonymy to be a dangerous one, and through closer linguistic examination I shall show that, while ἐλεέω and ἐλεαίρω express pity, οἰκτείρω does not. This distinction has profound implications for the broader scholarly and popular conception of the Iliad and its characters. Before proceeding, however, a brief review of the relevant scholarship will help contextualize my own study. The contexts in which these emotions are presented are the only clues we have to a distinction between the emotions of ἐλεέω and οἰκτείρω. There is therefore an inevitable incompleteness inherent in studies of Homeric emotion. While my main focus will be on the scenes where these verbs explicitly express the emotion of the characters (particularly Achilles), other scenes containing language of sorrow, mourning, or despair doubtless also contain elements of pity. As Griffin points out, “‘[Homer] has made the narrative sufficiently pathetic’; but it is not by means of explicitly emotional words that this effect is achieved.”5 Just as the audience may feel pity during a scene in which no word for pity appears, a character may feel pity without “explicitly emotional words” present, betraying this feeling simply through his actions or words. Since I will be arguing that scenes involving the verbs οἰκτείρω and ἐλεέω are distinct from one another, it 4 See Prauscello, “The Language of Pity”; and Scott, “Pity and Pathos in Homer.” 5 Griffin, Homer on Life and Death, 108-‐109. He notes that the first part of the sentence is from the ancient scholia, but does not seem to cite a specific source. 2 is important to keep in mind that there could be additional moments in which these emotions are felt but not overtly mentioned. Nonetheless, despite such difficulties, scholars seem unable to resist the urge to explain why this epic has been so able to stir the great depths of our feeling and pity for so long. Very often they turn to a more renowned, but still somewhat problematic Greek guide – Aristotle. Duane Conley, for example, in “Pity and Poetic Justice in the Iliad,” considers the great emotional triumph of the poem, based on a reading of Aristotle’s Poetics, to be Homer’s ability to strike the perfect equilibrium between pity and poetic justice. That is to say, Achilles inspires sympathy when he mourns for his friend Patroclus, or when he pities and assists the enemy king Priam, because he reveals a humane and vulnerable side. Yet our sense of righteousness is also satisfied, as Achilles gets punished for his inexhaustible bitterness and rage. In this singular story – Aristotle notes that “out of an Iliad… only one tragedy can be made, or two at most, whereas several have been made out of the Cypria, and of the Little Iliad more than eight”6 – we invest fully in the great tragedy of Achilles because he displays a full range of human pity and anger, sorrow and rage, love and selfishness. This focused and balanced tragic equilibrium, according to Conley, is the heart of the Iliad. Todd Frobish also examines the poem through an Aristotelian lens (the Rhetoric rather than the Poetics), but he is more interested in developing a theory of Homeric character and ethos that he can trace forward to Aristotle than in explaining the particular emotional impact that the Iliad has had through the centuries. It seems that modern scholars are intensely interested not only in 6 Conley, “Pity and Poetic Justice in the Iliad, 171, citing Aristotle’s Poetics 23.7. 3 connecting Homer philosophically to his Greek posterity, but also in categorizing this epic by means of later narrative theory with respect to emotion, character, and plot. This approach can be dangerous, though, since the meanings and distinctions between words can shift, even in only a few hundred years. The words that I will examine, and their implications, may not have meant the same thing to the Classical Athenian as they did to the Homeric Greek. Elizabeth Robertson and T.A. Stroud, in their article “Aristotle’s Poetics and the Plot of the Iliad,” go perhaps even further with this approach, splitting the Iliad into two main plots, each under one of Aristotle’s categories. The first is a ‘simple’ plot in which a series of spectacles unfolds centered around the Plan of Zeus, which is accomplished when the Trojans reach the Greek ships, the ultimate punishment and humiliation. Though Zeus is the main actor here, they see him as a thematic substitute for Achilles since he is enacting this plan based on Achilles’ plea. The second plot is a ‘passion-‐dominated’ one in which Achilles retakes an active role as protagonist and his rage transforms from a reserved aloofness to an unbridled yearning for revenge. In this way, Robertson and Stroud argue that the plot is driven by two different forms of Achilles’ rage, and they treat Achilles’ feeling of οἶκτος for Priam at the end of the story (24.516) as a sort of denouement: “the change occurs only after all passion is spent.”7 This raises an important issue: what is the nature of Achilles’ connection with Priam in the final book? 8 These authors see it as an integral movement in the plot that concludes a journey starting as early as the first 7 Robertson & Stroud, “Aristotle’s Poetics and the Plot of the Iliad,” 195. 8 Here, as I will examine in later sections, the verb used is οἰκτείρω (24.516). 4 line of the poem, in which the poet sings of Achilles’ μῆνις (rage). Since scholars who analyze the theme of pity are generally in favor of the theory that a single poet created this work, they tend to take the same stance as Robertson & Stroud. This is in direct response to other scholars, such as Walter Leaf, who have theorized that the Iliad consists of a series of layered stories that accumulated over the centuries in the oral tradition.9 By this argument, the final books in which Achilles feels οἶκτος may simply be a tacked on conclusion, not necessarily essential to the main story. The role and nature of pity and οἶκτος is perhaps the crucial element in this debate, speaking to whether Achilles’ story is a unified whole or a series of fragmented layers. The study of the nature of pity in the Iliad, then, holds no small significance for the larger issues of narrative structure and authorship. Other scholars approach the topic of pathos in order to elucidate the cultural mindset of the Homeric audience and society. A. Maria van Erp Taalman Kip, for example, focuses on the gods in “The Gods of the Iliad and the Fate of Troy” as she rebukes any attempt to find justice or morality in the divine action within the poem. She warns against modern sentiment and sensibility as it pertains to the Iliad, emphasizing instead what a truly stark world Homer presents, where men fighting for life and death pledge themselves and pray to gods who are more interested in their own fickle desires than the livelihoods of mortals. This narrative device, she argues, “open[s] the way for our pity and our awareness of the human condition.”10 If the gods acted in a purely moral fashion, we would not sympathize with the 9 For more on Leaf, his theory, and the sorts of responses it has elicited from other scholars, see Duffy, “Leaf’s Theory of the Gods,” 4-‐18. 10 Kip, “The Gods of the Iliad and the Fate of Troy,” 402. 5 Trojans and the entire war would seem to be just a righteous crusade rather than the layered human tragedy that it truly is presented to be. In this way, the pity of the audience lies at the very center of the story for Kip, and the pity of the characters, particularly Achilles as he begins to see the world of gods and men in a similar way to the audience, may be a reflection of the emotional reality that existed for the Homeric audience. For her, the moments of pity throughout the epic are directly linked with those moments in which the audience would sympathize as well. Mary Scott, in “Pity and Pathos in Homer,” is also interested in this mirroring effect, by means of which the characters and audience are emotionally linked. She is one of the few scholars who distinguishes between the specific words for pity within the epic, as I will discuss later, but she does this only in an attempt to discern what scenes would have aroused empathy in the audience. War and death, according to Scott, are not manifestations of inherent evil, as they may be to a more modern audience. Rather, the pathos in these concepts lies in the fear of failure. The most pathetic part of a warrior’s death, as we see throughout the Homeric epithets and obituaries, is his failure to return to his family or provide for his people. Pity, then, lies solely, as a student of Aristotle would indeed argue, in the connection between audience and character, and the fear that whatever tragic fate comes to Achilles may in some way befall the listener as well. The nature of pity among these characters, then, does not just influence our conception of the story’s construction and intention. It holds significant implications for the very essence of the poem and how audiences, both ancient and modern, have related to it. 6
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