The New Guide to Aquarium Fish

108 Pages·1996·10.9 MB·English

by  Mary Bailey

The
New Guide to

Aquarium Fish

A comprehensive and authoritative

guide to tropical freshwater, brackish,

and marine fishes

Mary Bailey and Gina Sandford

ULTIMATE
E D I T I O N S
Ciclilids

Qchlids (family Cichlidae) origi-
nate primarily in tropical America
and Africa, with a few species in
the Middle East and Asia. They
are mainly freshwater fishes,
though a few species require or
tolerate brackish conditions. Size -
adult Standard Length (SL) -
ranges from 2 cm to 91 cm (3/4 in
Who's watching who? Cichlids, especially large ones, show considerable interest
to 36 in) with a similar diversity in
in the world outside their tank, and can become real pets. This is a female
form, diet, and behaviour. Some Nandopsis do\ii, one of the largest species and a real character.
species are very colourful and are
thus attractive aquarium Cichlid Behaviour and Its
occupants. Many aquarists are, Management
however, attracted by their
All cichlids practise brood care,
interesting behaviour, character,
guarding both eggs and young.
and apparent intelligence; large
This ensures a high survival rate,
specimens in particular can
so clutch size is small compared
become genuine pets. to that in egg-scattering fishes,
Cichlids can be divided into a
which rely on sheer numbers of
number of more or less discrete
eggs for genetic survival.
groups, based largely on geo-
Cichlids have two brood-care
graphical distribution, but also
strategies: substrate brooding and
habitat, size, diet, and behaviour.
mouthbrooding. In the former,
Before discussing the major
(normally) adhesive eggs are laid Teleogramma brichardi is a cave-
groups, however, we must present on a "spawning substrate", for spawning rapids cichlid from the Zaire
an overview of "cichlid psy- (Congo) River. The large eggs are
example a stone, plant, or piece of
chology" — how they behave, and, opaque even when fertile, and are
wood; then guarded against
tended by the female alone. The fry are
more important, why. A thorough
predators, kept clean by regular
correspondingly large.
understanding of this is essential
"mouthing", and fanned with the
to their successful maintenance. pectoral fins to ensure a constant
supply of oxygenated water. Both
parents may share these duties, or
one (usually the female) may
concentrate on tending the eggs
while the other guards the
breeding territory. When the
larvae hatch they are often placed
in a pre-dug nursery pit, and
sometimes moved at regular
intervals to new pits. Once free-
swimming, the fry may be
This Cichlid is one of the smallest,
escorted around in search of food, Cichlids are noted for their brood care:
Lamprologus ocelatus a tiny Lake
or allowed to forage, Pelvicachromis pulcher (the krib) is easy
Tanganika shell-dweller. This is a male
to keep, easy to sex, and easy to breed,
female are even smaller independently but under
and can be kept in the general
supervision, in the breeding
community. This is a female guarding
territory. Brood care usually fry.
continues until the parents are guarded like substrate-brooder
ready to spawn again (which may young. Some species have
be from 10 days to several months, eggspots, while others have
depending on the species). evolved different egg dummies
This strategy is often known such as "genital tassels" and
as "substrate spawning", and is egg-like tips to the pelvic fins.
further divided into "open Many tilapiines are, however,
brooding" and "cave brooding", substrate-brooders, and where
A pair of Tropheus duboisi "yellow
according to the location of the band" spawning. The female (left) is mouth-brooding has evolved it
spawning substrate. It requires a nuzzling the vent area of the male, often appears less advanced
strong pair bond which may last ingesting milt to fertilize the eggs than in the haplochromines.
already in her mouth.
for a single spawning episode, a Mouthbrooding has also
breeding season, or life. In some arisen, quite independently, in
species a male may bond with some American Cichlids but is
several females ("harem far less common.
polygyny"), each holding her own Breeding may be seasonal or
breeding territory within his continuous. The former is the
"super territory". norm in bodies of water affected
Mouthbrooding, by contrast, dramatically by climatic change,
protects the eggs and young in and is often triggered by the
A brooding female Haplochromis
the mouth of one or both par- onset of the rains and a con-
pyrrhocephalus, one of the Lake
ents until they are old enough or comitant increase in food supply
Victoria "haps". Note the
large enough to stand a good characteristic distended (with fry) and available territory (flooded
chance of survival alone. throat and "pursed" lips. areas). Piscivorous species may
Mouthing and fanning are spawn later when their food sup-
replaced by the drawing of clean, ply is augmented by fry of other
oxygenated water through the fishes! Some species raise more
mouth by gill action. This, coup- than one brood during a breed-
led with a reduction in or cess- ing season, often with the same
ation of food intake, imposes a partner. The pair bond
considerable physical strain on commonly dissolves at the end
the parent(s). of the breeding season, with a

The majority of mouthbrooders new partner being selected next
belong to one of the two main A Labeotropheus fuelleborni (orange time.
morph) releasing her fry.
lineages of African Cichlids, the Continuous breeding is nor-
haplochromines, in which eggs before collection by the female, mally found where changes in the
and fry are incubated by the but in many species males have climate have less effect, for
female alone (maternal mouth- ocelli, the colour and size of example in large lakes. Over-
brooding). Upon release, normally eggs ("eggspots"), on the anal population is prevented by cycli-
after about three weeks, he fry fin, and in trying to collect cal fluctuation in food supply and
are often abandoned. Males do these the female ingests sperm, breeding success; when the food
not bond with females, but hold released from the nearby vent, supply is good females produce
spawning territories, often to fertilize the real eggs that are large clutches, but the resulting
centred on laboriously con- already in her mouth. population explosion depletes the
structed "nests", from which they In tilapiines, the other African food supply and reduces breeding
display to potential temporary lineage, brooding may be mater- success until the food supply
partners. Frequently males hold nal, paternal or biparental, the recovers. In cap-nvhy constant
adjacent territories and compete last usually involving a pair bond abundant food may lead to
for females ("arena breeding"). and shared territory, as in sub- unnaturally frequent and/or large
The non-adhesive eggs are laid in strate brooding. Brood care may clutches and excessive physical
the nest. Sometimes they are continue after release, with fry drain on the female, with gill
fertilized returning to the mouth or being strain a serious danger in
mouthbrooders.
Courtship may be stormy. A pair of Nandopsis octofasciatus Qack Dempseys) mouthfighting.
Most cichlids can be induced to Plants can be protected by
breed in captivity (some need planting in pots, or between rocks
little persuasion), but it must be and/or pebbles; or omitted.
understood that in some species Equipment can be fixed in place,
there is a downside to their and heavy, immovable, decor
breeding behaviour. This has used. The environment should be
given the entire family an often tailored to natural behaviour - you

undeserved reputation for being will never achieve the reverse!
Substrate spawners such as
difficult, destructive, aggressive, A fish which needs to hold a
Amphilophus citrinellus often dig
and so on. The worst problems private territory to attract a mate nursery pits.
can be avoided by understanding (mouthbrooders) or raise a family
the reasons for their actions and (substrate brooders) will quite
taking their behavioural (as well as justifiably regard tankmates as
physical) needs into account. competitors, intruders, or potential
Digging is a natural and fry-predators, and do its best to
instinctive part of cichlid behav- eliminate such threats. Even if the
iour, and attempts to curb it, for aquarist is aware of the need for
example by having no substrate, an exclusive territory, he rarely

are cruel. "Aquascaping", some- comprehends the amount of space
times with uprooting of plants, is required by substrate brooders. Mouthbrooders dig too, some building
huge crater nests.
often a necessary preliminary to Although some small species are
breeding - the construction of content, in nature as well as a 120 x 40 cm (48 x 15 in)
nursery pits or nests. Large cich- captivity, with an area 30-40 cm aquarium, they draw the line at
lids may try to remove intrusive (12-15 in) in diameter, many sharing it. So, although many
decor and equipment by brute others occupy an area the size of a species can be included in general
force - and worse still, succeed! In good-sized room in the wild, and or cichlid communities, it must be
general, the larger the species, the while they are obliging enough to accepted that some need their own
greater the extent, and likelihood, make do with aquarium.
10 of disruption. Sometimes the hostility of the
territorial male extends to the
female. In nature a female can
simply swim away from a male
when she does not wish to breed.
To stay is to indicate interest. In
the aquarium she cannot swim
away, the male assumes she wants
to breed, and when she rejects his
courtship he attacks her like any
intruder -but she has nowhere to
go, and may be killed. So, unless
the tank is rather longer than
natural territorial diameter, care Occasionally even Apistogrammas have to be "contained" with a divider.
must be exercised with sexually
mature adults; the problem can
their young. In the wild fry grad- towards conspecifics, as they are
often be solved by using a clear
ually wander further and further the chief competitors for suitable
divider to separate them until the
afield until eventually they habitat, mates, and breeding
female responds to the male's
become independent. Often there space. Next come other cichlids,
display. is not room for this to happen in especially those of similar size and
Where aggression between the
the aquarium; the parents tolerate appearance - often members of
sexes is likely, or absence of sexual
the youngsters until either the the same genus-. Non-cichlids are
dimorphism makes sexing
latter grow large enough to often a threat only to the brood,
impossible, it is best to grow on
represent competition, or the urge but not to the chance to breed,
six to eight juveniles together and
to breed again renders them a and are ignored if they keep their
let them pair naturally. This
potential threat to the intended distance.
makes for greater compatibility.
brood. Fry must be removed Care must be exercised in
"Spare" fishes can be rehomed. before this stage if they are to be introducing new fishes to any tank
Even with a compatible and
grown on. in which a cichlid holds territory;
bonded pair, perhaps with eggs or
With arena-breeding mouth- again conspecifics and similar
fry, the male may suddenly turn
brooders, where territory is not species are most likely to fare
on the female if they are alone in
needed for fry-guarding, territori- badly. "New" fishes include
the aquarium. His prime instinct
ality can be turned on itself by former residents which have been
is to defend his territory and
crowding, so no male can claim a absent for -a period - for example
family against intruders, but if
significant area except when his while brooding. They will have
there are no actual enemies to
motivation peaks in the presence become strangers and have lost
repel, this may be turned upon the
of a "ripe" female. Often these their position in the tank
only suitably sized fish available -
fishes cannot be kept alone in hierarchy.
the female. This can be avoided
single pairs as the male then By now you must be wondering
by placing the tank adjacent to one
harasses the female to death in his if cichlids are worth the hassle, but
containing fishes large enough to
attempts to persuade her to this doubt will evaporate the first
pose a threat, or by partitioning
spawn; again her presence implies time you see a pair with young, or
off part of the breeding tank with
willingness. In the crowded watch a mouthbrooder release her
a clear divider to accommodate a
mouthbrooder community, fry. Many a confirmed fish-hating
"target fish". Target fishes must,
however, males have plenty of partner has softened at the sight!
however, always have adequate
distractions and females can Moreover many species can be
living space, and never be exposed
"hide" among the other fishes. kept and bred without problem in
to actual aggressive contact. Such an aquarium is a hive of a general community. We trust,
The novice cichlid breeder is
activity, and it is generally best to however, it is quite clear that you
often devastated when hitherto •: -
move brooding females to must always research behaviour as
:'ve parents suddenly eat individual small brooding tanks well as environmental
until fry release. requirements before making any
Territoriality is usually greatest purchase.
GROUPS OF CICHLIDS A Paraiheraps fenestratus female. This
attractive herbivore is not yet as widely
available as the popular P. synspilum
Central American Cichlids
(Quetzal cichlid). Archocentrus,
This group comprises several
Neetroplus, and Herotilapia (7.5-
genera closely related to the South 18 cm/3-7 in) are omnivorous cave
American genus Cichlasoma, and brooders, feeding on invertebrates
assigned to it until recently. The and some vegetable matter. Apart
from Herotilapia and Archocentrus
earlier name, and also Heros, is
centrarchus, they tend to be very
still commonly used. Their
belligerent for their size.
distribution encompasses lakes,
Thorichthys (10-15 cm/4-6 in)
rivers, and streams •in not only
breed in caves or other sheltered
Archocentrus nigrofasciatus, the ever
Central America but also the sites (for example, between rocks,
popular "convict cichlid", is small
southern United States and some or beneath overhangs) and are
but highly territorial, probably
Caribbean islands. The water in insectivores.
because of heavy competition for
these regions is normally hard and breeding sites in the wild. Chuco, Copora, Paraneetroplus,
alkaline (pH 7.5-8.0), and still or Tomocichla, and Theraps (13-30
with a slow to moderate flow. The cm/5-12 in) are also cave brood-
maintenance/breeding temperature ers, but occur in faster-flowing
is 24-27°C (75-80°F). water than other Central
All are monogamous, seasonal Americans. They require a rocky
substrate brooders, with a fairly habitat. Paraneetroplus are herbiv-
large territorial requirement - a orous and the others largely
diameter roughly 5 to 10 times insectivorous. Copora nicaraguensis
adult male length. Many are Copora nicaraguensis is relatively is unusual for a substrate spawner
highly competitive, and only the peaceful, and aspects of its breeding in that its eggs are non-adhesive,
smallest species are suitable for a behaviour are unique among Central laid in a pit, and taken into the
Americans. Shown here is a female.
Central American community, and mouth for cleaning.
then only in a large (120 cm/48 in) Herichthys, Paratheraps, and
tank. NONE IS SUITABLE FOR Vieja (20-35 cm/8-14 in) are
THE GENERAL COMMUNITY. herbivorous open brooders, gen-
They should never be mixed with erally with little sexual dimor-
their Amazonian cousins, whose phism. Although peaceful in
temperament and water require- relation to their size, they require
ments are completely different, spacious (minimum 120 x 50
though some can be housed with cm/48 x 18 in) private breeding
some cichlids from hard water quarters.Amphilophus (20-30
areas of north-west South America. cm/8-12 in) are bottom-sifting
Digging is often frequent and omnivores. Some of these open
extensive. brooders are extremely intolerant
Males are usually larger than of con-specifics or similar-looking
females and have longer finnage; con-generics, and males may be a
one sex may be more colourful serious threat to females.
than the other. Ideally pairs should Nandopsis and Petenia (15-75
be given their own quarters, at cm/6-30 in), the "guapotes", are
least for breeding, with 80 cm (30 open-brooding predators with
in) the minimum tank length for piscivorous tendencies. They are
the smallest species. The males of Thorichthys pasionis, like its better solitary except when breeding, and
known cousin Th. meefei (the fire-
some large species may represent a are therefore intolerant of other
mouth), has "eye-spots" on its gill-
serious danger to the females. covers, which, when the latter are fishes. Bonded pairs, however, are
flared, make it look like a much often highly tolerant of each other,
larger fish. and will unite to exterminate any
competition.
Medium/large South
American Cichlids
Most of these are found in the
Amazon and Paraguay river sys-
tems, as well as rivers in the
Guianas, with water chemistry
generally soft, and pH ranging
from extremely acid (pH<5.0) to
slightly alkaline. Soft slightly acid
water is a good starting point.
Although several species have
been acclimated to hard water, the
correct conditions are normally
required for breeding.
Aequidens sp. cf. rivulatus (the green terror) comes from north-west South America,
Maintenance temperature is 26-
where the water is harder and more alkaline than in the Amazon system. Its
27°C (78-80°F).
temperament is more like that of Central American cichlids.
In these regions cichlids are not
the dominant predators and are
many species will often "pair" in from substrate spawning through
rarely found in open water (where
captivity in the absence of a male. biparental mouthbrooding to
they would be easy prey for other
Digging and bottom sifting are advanced arena-breeding maternal
fishes, birds, and reptiles) ; instead
common (except in Symphysodon, mouthbrooding. They are found
they occupy the margins of
Pterophyllum, and Mesonauta), and throughout tropical South
permanent bodies of water - lakes,
plants may be disturbed. America. Most are bottom sifters
rivers, and streams - where they
A number of species originate and require a fine substrate.
can shelter among overhanging
in the harder, more alkaline waters Retroculus inhabit fast-flowing
vegetation, roots, and fallen trees.
of north-western South America, water. Because of the diversity of
Some are found beneath floating
where there is no significant the group, it will be necessary to
islands of plant debris. Most prefer
inundation and breeding territory research specific requirements.
still or slow-moving water, and do
is often at a premium. Species Heros ("severums"), Hypselecara
not appreciate bright lighting.
from this region are sometimes (chocolate cichlids), Mesonauta
When the rains come the sur-
more territorial; these are the only (festive cichlids), Hoplarchus
rounding forest is flooded to a
South American cichlids suitable (parrot cichlids, not to be confused
depth of many metres, offering an
for mixing with Central with "blood red parrots" which are
immense area of additional
Americans, and then only with probably of hybrid origin), and
feeding and breeding territory. In
caution. Uaru (triangle cichlids), are medium
consequence most species breed
Cichlasoma, Aequidens, to large (18-45 cm/7-18 in), rather
seasonally and may require a series
Bujurquina, and Krobia (the peaceful Amazonian cichlids, often
of triggers (large water changes,
"acaras") are small to medium-
increased food supply, and raised
sized (10-18 cm/4-7 in) omni-
temperature) to induce breeding in
vores. Bujurquina art primitive
captivity. During the dry season a
biparental mouthbrooders, the rest
comparative shortage of habitat
are substrate spawners, sometimes
means that many live in shoals, so
utilizing a cave. Some Aequidens
terri-toriality is usually a problem
come from the northwest and may
only during breeding, and is then
be aggressive.
not excessive, as in the absence of
Geophagus, Satanoperca, An unidentified member of the
any need to fight for breeding
Gymnogeophagus, Biotodoma, Geophagus surinamensis complex. This
territory competitiveness has
Acarichthys, Guianacara, and group was for a long time thought to be
remained minimal. Sexual dimor- a single species with both substrate
Retroculus, (the geophagines or
phism is unusual, and females of spawning and mouth-brooding
"eartheaters") (10-30 cm/4-12 in)
populations, but is now known to
are a highly variable group with
include several species.
breeding strategies ranging
Uaru amphiacanthoides fry, like those of
Symphysodon (discus), feed on parental
body mucus, but in this species the
behaviour is not obligatory. Uaru fry eat
anything, in quantity, and rapidly
become "little bellies with fins". Adults
are "gentle giants".
Astronotus ocellatus (the oscar), often purchased by beginners ignorant of its
even when breeding provided the habits and eventual size, is a common cause of "multiple tank syndrome".
tank is large (over 180 cm/72 in).
Hews and Mesonauta are often sold
"pair") so a group of fry should be discus, simply provide a well-
as general community fishes, but
grown on to obtain a pair. They planted Amazonian aquarium,
their ultimate size (20-30 cm/8-12
are prone to become habituated to smallish peaceful tankmates, and
in and 18-20 cm/7-8 in
individual foods unless the diet is a varied diet including pond
respectively) will mean a rethink
varied, and to serious digestive foods. Discus fry initially feed -
later on. Heros are partially
upsets if fed an unsuitable diet (for exclusively on parental body
vegetarian, and Uaru will denude a
example large amounts of pellets). mucus and cannot be raised away
planted aquarium overnight, as
They are naturally piscivores, but from their parents.
well as digging enthusiastically
also relish insects and earthworms. Crenicichla (pike cichlids) is a
(they are, however, great
Pterophyllum (angels) are prob- highly variable genus, which is
characters!). The others are
ably the most popular cichlids, increasing in popularity now that
omnivorous. All are open-
and common members of the aquarists are realizing that pisci-
brooding substrate spawners;
general community. They are leaf- vorous does not necessarily mean
Mesonauta spawn on the underside
spawning substrate spawners, aggressive (though some species
of floating vegetation/debris in the
peaceful, easy to keep, and non- are). Size ranges from 7.5 to 60
wild, and, uniquely, lead their fry
destructive. They may, however, cm (3 to 24 in), and habitat from
from below rather than above.-All
eat very small tankmates. They rapids to slow-moving forest
but Uaru were formerly included in
originate from the Amazon streams and still lakes. All are
the genus Cichlasoma.
system, as do their close relatives predators, most lurking under a
Astronotus ocellatus (oscars) are
Symphysodon (discus or pom- root or overhang until prey passes.
large (up to 38 cm/15 in),
padours), and both are commonly Juveniles and small species eat
destructive, territorial, Amazonian
found sympatrically. Nevertheless a invertebrates as well as fishes, but
open brooders, and are extremely
remarkable mythos has evolved the aquarist must be prepared to
popular because of their character.
regarding discus, implying that feed live fishes to wild adults, at
They are best kept singly or as
they are difficult fishes, something least initially. All are sexually
pairs in a single-species tank in
which is given the lie by their dimorphic substrate spawners.
which everything but the gravel
thriving in general communities THEY MUST NEVER BE
has been rendered immovable.
when placed there by the aquarist INCLUDED IN THE GENERAL
(Minimum tank size 100 x 40
ignorant of their "special COMMUNITY or with other fishes
cm/36 x 15 in for a single fish,
requirements". In this one case we less than two-thirds their own size
120 x 40 cm/48 x 15 in for a pair.)
suggest you avoid homework in (including each other!); they are
They are totally unsexable (and
the first instance, and if you want best avoided by beginners, and,
females will
to keep given their diversity, must be
individually researched.
South American Dwarfs (24 in) or 50 cm (18 in) aquaria. fishes, these peaceful non-
These are small cichlids (up to 10 A "dwarf community" is possible, destructive cichlids can instead be
cm/4 in) from still or slow-moving but as territorial requirements (38- housed in the general community.
streams and pools in rainforests 50 cm/15-20 in diameter per pair, Males are often very competitive
and savannahs east of the Andes; 25-30 cm/10-12 in per female in so one per species per tank is a
their range, and consequently Apistogramma harems) would good rule. Fry of some species are
general biotope conditions, restrict its population to a small tiny and may need infusorians as
coincides to a large extent with number of small their first food.
that of the larger species covered
above. All are seasonal substrate
brooders; most are strongly
sexually dimorphic in size,
coloration, and finnage, with the
male the larger, showier fish. All
are vulnerable to preda-tion on
account of their size, and are
nervous in captivity unless plenty
of cover - plants, caves, bogwood
- is provided and lighting is
moderate. The use of "dither
fishes" - shoals of small characins
which help instil confidence that
no predator is in the vicinity — is Apistogramma nijsseni, (the panda dwarf cichlid), is like most "Apistos",
recommended. strongly sexually dimorphic. The male is much larger and blue. The jet black
Soft, slightly acid (pH 6.5) water pelvic fins of maternal Apistogrammas are used to signal to the fry.
is suitable for maintenance of all
species, though some may require
greater acidity for breeding. A few
species have become acclimated to
hard alkaline water, but high pH is
best avoided. Water quality should
be excellent and the temperature
25-28°C (77-82°F). A fine sub-
strate should be used to permit the
Each "wife" in an Apistogramma Apistogramma caves should have small
minimal digging essential to
harem occupies a small (30cm/12 in entrances. The male is not allowed to
breeding in some species. All diameter) breeding territory, centred enter, and uses his tail to fan sperm in -
species feed on invertebrates and on a cave, in the male's "super-terri- a low ceiling will ensure the eggs are "in
relish pond foods when tory". Here two female A. cacatuoides range". After spawning, the female
dispute an internal boundary. walls herself in until the fry are free-
maintained in captivity.
swimming.
Apistogramma, Apisto-^zmmoides,
Taeniacara, and
• .innacara are cave brooders, the :
rst of these often practising
.;rem polygyny. Microgeophagus
:.;pi/iochromis), Crenicara, ~-
.jrossus, Laetacara, and
'.dthracara (keyhole cichlids)
e open brooders, utilizing : am
The rainforests and savannahs of South Nannacara anomala is a rather neglected
leaves or stones, always in America are vast, and Apistogrammas dwarf which breeds successfully in hard
sheltered spot. Single mated : iirs tiny and secretive, so many species alkaline water. The colourless juveniles
can be kept in 60 cm probably remain to be discovered. A. seen in dealers' tanks blossom into
norberti (this is a male) is a recent attractive orange females (above) and
discovery. turquoise males.