The Need for Critical Thinking and the Scientific Method

153 Pages·2018·23.794 MB·English

by  Finlay MacRitchie

The Need for Critical
Thinking and the
fi
Scienti c Method
http://taylorandfrancis.com
The Need for Critical
Thinking and the
fi
Scienti c Method
Finlay MacRitchie
CRCPress
Taylor&FrancisGroup
6000BrokenSoundParkwayNW,Suite300
BocaRaton,FL33487-2742
©2018byTaylor&FrancisGroup,LLC
CRCPressisanimprintofTaylor&FrancisGroup,anInformabusiness
NoclaimtooriginalU.S.Governmentworks
Printedonacid-freepaper
InternationalStandardBookNumber-13:978-0-8153-6775-8(Paperback)
InternationalStandardBookNumber-13:978-0-8153-6815-1(Hardback)
Thisbookcontainsinformationobtainedfromauthenticandhighlyregardedsources.Reasonableefforts
havebeenmadetopublishreliabledataandinformation,buttheauthorandpublishercannotassume
responsibilityforthevalidityofallmaterialsortheconsequencesoftheiruse.Theauthorsandpublishers
haveattemptedtotracethecopyrightholdersofallmaterialreproducedinthispublicationandapologize
tocopyrightholdersifpermissiontopublishinthisformhasnotbeenobtained.Ifanycopyrightmaterial
hasnotbeenacknowledged,pleasewriteandletusknowsowemayrectifyinanyfuturereprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafterinvented,includingphotocopying,microfilming,andrecording,orinanyinformationstorageor
retrievalsystem,withoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublishers.
Forpermissiontophotocopyorusematerialelectronicallyfromthiswork,pleaseaccesswww.copyright.com
(http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood
Drive,Danvers,MA01923,978-750-8400.CCCisanot-for-profitorganizationthatprovideslicensesand
registrationforavarietyofusers.Fororganizationsthathavebeengrantedaphotocopylicensebythe
CCC,aseparatesystemofpaymenthasbeenarranged.
TrademarkNotice:Productorcorporatenamesmaybetrademarksorregisteredtrademarks,andare
usedonlyforidentificationandexplanationwithoutintenttoinfringe.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Names:MacRitchie,Finlay,author.
Title:Criticalthinkingandthescientificmethod/FinlayMacRitchie.
Description:BocaRaton:Taylor&Francis,2018.|Includesbibliographical
references.
Identifiers:LCCN2017059910|ISBN9780815367758(pbk.:acid-freepaper)|
ISBN9780815368151(hardback:acid-freepaper)
Subjects:LCSH:Science--Methodology.|Science--Socialaspects.|
Criticalthinking.
Classification:LCCQ175.M2352018|DDC001.4/2--dc23
LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2017059910
VisittheTaylor&FrancisWebsiteat
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
andtheCRCPressWebsiteat
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................xi
About the author..............................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 Introduction...................................................................................1
Part 1:Common misunderstandings ofthe scientific method.....................1
The topic ofdebate mustbe defined unambiguously..............................1
Atrue scientist mustbe detached...............................................................2
Ascientific theory can never be proven beyond doubt...........................2
Separate observations that are consistent withatheory
do notcorrespond toadditional confirmation..........................................3
Refutability as acriterion for evaluating ascientific theory....................3
Consensus is nota criterion forthe validity of atheory.........................4
The illusion ofmodeling...............................................................................4
Part 2:General introduction..............................................................................4
The range ofcapacity forcritical thinking.................................................5
Distinction between science andpseudoscience.......................................6
Transition fromdogmatic tocritical thinking...........................................7
Howthis relates toanthropogenic global warming.................................8
Faults inapplication ofthe scientific method............................................8
Absence ofscientific thinking inpolitical debate......................................9
Summarizing thoughts.....................................................................................10
Chapter 2 Thescientific method................................................................13
The problem of demarcation...........................................................................14
Notable theories of theearly twentieth century..........................................14
Comparisons ofthe different theories...........................................................15
Guidelines forevaluating theories.................................................................16
Refutability as the criterion for demarcation................................................16
Probability and informative content..............................................................17
Conjectures and refutations............................................................................18
Criteria forevaluating atheory......................................................................18
The need forscience to grow(or toprogress)..............................................18
v
vi Contents
Requirements forprogress ofscience............................................................19
Dangers toprogress..........................................................................................19
References..........................................................................................................20
Chapter 3 Howthe lack ofscientific inputimpacts
researchorganizations...............................................................21
Australian ministers incharge ofscience portfolio.....................................21
The contribution ofthe Honorable R.G. Casey............................................22
A short history ofCSIRO after its formation...............................................23
Changes resulting from reviews of CSIRO...................................................23
Howscientific knowledge is acquired...........................................................24
Howmanagerial controlpurports todrive science.....................................25
Comparison of thetwo approaches...............................................................26
Howhas the CSIRO fared?.............................................................................27
The requirement to obtainaproportion ofthe research funding.............27
Effect ofthese changes on theworkplace environment..............................28
The climate change controversy.....................................................................29
The lackof scientific thinking in thedebate.................................................29
Errors in application of science.......................................................................29
Balanced debate can still occur.......................................................................30
Expansion ofthe managerial approach.........................................................30
The present workingenvironment.................................................................31
The Victims ofCSIRO blog site......................................................................31
References..........................................................................................................32
Chapter 4 Howcould thishave happened?............................................33
A careerin science............................................................................................33
Effect ofthe requirement to procure funding...............................................34
Why do notmore scientists enter politics?...................................................34
Arescientists different?....................................................................................35
Howscience of excellence canstill be achieved..........................................36
Howcould it have happened?........................................................................37
Making decisions without thebasic knowledge..........................................37
Howimportant scientific discoveries are made...........................................38
Effect oforganizational changeson research................................................38
Where angels fear totread..............................................................................39
Where wasthe scientific leadership?.............................................................39
Why do toxic work environments form in scienceorganizations?...........40
Howdo toxic workplace environments arise?.............................................40
The control freak...............................................................................................41
The narcissist.....................................................................................................41
The serial bully..................................................................................................42
The psychopath.................................................................................................42
Whatis a psychopath?.....................................................................................43
Contents vii
Characteristics of psychopaths.......................................................................43
Howare psychopaths identified?...................................................................44
The Hare checklist............................................................................................44
An example ofpsychopathic behavior..........................................................45
The legalargument...........................................................................................46
Psychopaths inscience.....................................................................................46
Whatis the origin of psychopathic behavior?..............................................47
Corporate psychopaths....................................................................................47
Howdo psychopaths attain high positions in corporations?....................48
Coping with psychopathic behavior..............................................................48
Howit happened..............................................................................................49
Notes...................................................................................................................50
References..........................................................................................................50
Chapter 5 Howthe media influences publicthinking..........................53
The myth ofthe lemmings..............................................................................53
The invasion ofIraqin 2003............................................................................54
The Chilean military coup of1973.................................................................55
Howcan wedecide what is thetruth?.........................................................56
Contrast between submissions to scientific journals
and tothe mainstreampress...........................................................................57
Issues that seem tobe ignored by themainstream media.........................58
Agenda 21orsustainable development........................................................58
British immigration since early1980s............................................................59
The opinion writers..........................................................................................60
Howa democratic system canbreak down.................................................62
The rise ofsocial media...................................................................................63
Howto think foryourself................................................................................63
References..........................................................................................................64
Chapter 6 Dangerstoprogress in science................................................65
Dangers toprogress of sciencesuggested byPopper.................................65
Obsession with number ofpublications........................................................66
Quantity and quality in scientific publications............................................67
Citations and impact factors formeasuring merit.......................................68
Lackof citations topublications.....................................................................69
An excess of poor-quality research................................................................69
Negative flow-on effects from mediocre research.......................................70
Notmore scientists but more good scientists...............................................71
Effects ofexternal and internal forces............................................................72
Misconduct in science......................................................................................72
Moresubtle forms of unethical behavior......................................................73
Cases...................................................................................................................73
Conclusions from these cases..........................................................................74
viii Contents
Fraud inscience may be moreprevalent than thought..............................74
Misallocation ofcredit......................................................................................75
Maintaining theintegrity ofscience...............................................................75
Authoritarianism...............................................................................................75
The earth as thecenter ofthe universe.........................................................76
Lysenkoism........................................................................................................76
Managerialism...................................................................................................77
References..........................................................................................................78
Chapter 7 Applying scientific thinking tosome current
controversies...............................................................................79
Climate change..................................................................................................79
Observations consistent with previous onescannot be claimed
asconfirmations................................................................................................80
The weakness ofmodeling..............................................................................80
The medieval warmperiod.............................................................................81
The Great Barrier Reef.....................................................................................82
Effects ofacidification of theocean................................................................83
The chemistry ofcarbon dioxide dissolution...............................................84
A critical examination is needed of thearguments for andagainst.........84
The saturated fat controversy.........................................................................85
Brief summaryofthe research on theeffects of saturated fats..................85
Problems forfood processors..........................................................................86
The problem of transfats................................................................................86
Replacement oftrans fats................................................................................87
The role ofcholesterol......................................................................................87
LDL and HDLcholesterol...............................................................................87
A critical examination of thesaturated fat–heart disease hypothesis......88
Epidemiological research versus clinical studies.........................................88
Selection bias.....................................................................................................88
Encroachment ofbureaucracy........................................................................89
Status ofthe hypothesis...................................................................................89
The advent ofgluten-free foods.....................................................................90
Celiac disease andgluten intolerance............................................................90
The need forgluten-free foods........................................................................90
Explosion ofgluten-free foods........................................................................91
The downside ofgluten-free diets..................................................................91
Genetic engineering..........................................................................................92
The possibilities forgenetic manipulation....................................................92
Gene drives........................................................................................................93
CRISPR...............................................................................................................93
Weighing the risks............................................................................................93
Contents ix
Whatare the risks?...........................................................................................94
A critical examination of thecontroversy.....................................................95
References..........................................................................................................95
Chapter 8 Implementing scientific thinking and critical analysis......97
Research scientists in federalparliament......................................................98
Howto introduce more scientific thinking.................................................100
Changes needed inthe education system...................................................100
The role ofwonder in childhood education...............................................101
Teaching withmagic......................................................................................102
Creativity..........................................................................................................103
Introducing critical analysis..........................................................................103
Some simple examples...................................................................................104
Deflection ofan issue.....................................................................................105
Putting labels on opponents..........................................................................106
The straw manargument..............................................................................106
Could have or might have............................................................................106
The prism of ideology....................................................................................107
The influence ofcultural background on thecapacity
forscientific thinking......................................................................................107
References........................................................................................................107
Chapter 9 Bringing it together.................................................................109
Scientific/critical thinking..............................................................................109
The scientific/critical versus the dogmaticapproach................................110
The diminished roleof scientists..................................................................111
The effects onscientific excellence................................................................112
Howscientific organizations can be infiltrated by destroyers.................113
The pros and cons ofdemocracies...............................................................113
Howcan wedetermine ifaproposed newlaw is better
than the lawit replaces?................................................................................114
It’s theelectorate, stupid!...............................................................................114
The media........................................................................................................116
Howpublic opinion canbe influenced by themedia...............................116
Opinion writers...............................................................................................117
Dangers tothe progress ofscience...............................................................117
The lackof imagination or realinterest......................................................118
Howmanagerialism erodes the standard ofscientific research..............118
Isscience progressing?...................................................................................118
If scienceis not advancing as itshould, what is the cause?....................119
Howscientific progress canbe eroded by authoritarianism...................120
Flawsin the application ofthinking to some current issues...................120