The mothering experiences of asylum-seeking and refugee women in England Alice Haynes PhD ...

269 Pages·2013·1.73 MB·English

by  Nick Warner

Threatened identities:
The mothering experiences of asylum-seeking
and refugee women in England

Alice Haynes

PhD Thesis

University of East Anglia
School of Social Work

August 2013

This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it
is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of
any information derived there from must be in accordance with current UK
Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution.
Abstract

This thesis reports a qualitative study undertaken to explore the mothering
experiences of asylum-seeking and refugee women in England, with a specific
focus on how these experiences affect their maternal identity. Maternal identity is
defined here as a woman’s perceived sense of competence in her role as a mother.
In-depth interviews were conducted with twenty-two asylum-seeking and refugee
mothers. The study fills a significant gap in the research literature. Firstly, it
provides a comprehensive account of the experiences related to mothering of
asylum-seeking and refugee women in England. Secondly, it relates these
experiences to the women’s maternal identity. Thirdly, drawing on both sociology
and psychology and different approaches to analysing data, the thesis employs two
theoretical frameworks, resilience theory and impression management theory, to try
to understand the ways in which maternal identity can be protected.

The mothers in the sample spoke about a range of experiences that impacted on
their mothering practices and abilities. Many of these experiences were spoken
about as presenting challenges to mothering. These included negotiating an opaque
and hostile asylum system, poverty, housing problems, separation from children,
social isolation, negotiating a new culture, parenting alone and intimate partner
violence (IPV).

Some of these experiences threatened the expressed maternal identity of some
women. These experiences were threatening because they created a barrier between
mothering expectations and actions. However, some women seemed more able to
maintain a sense of competence in their mothering abilities, despite encountering
multiple challenges to mothering. This is explained using resilience theory. The
study adopts an alternative approach to understanding how maternal identity can be
protected. It employs impression management theory to explore the way in which
participants used language to negotiate their identities as ‘good’ mothers in the face
of threats. The implications of the findings are discussed with regards to both
government policy and those professionals working with asylum-seeking and
refugee mothers.
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Acknowledgements

I would first and foremost like to thank the women who shared their stories with
me. Many took part in the research at a very difficult time in their lives and I am
grateful for the trust they placed in me.

Many thanks also to staff at refugee support organisations for putting me in contact
with the participants. I am grateful to them for taking the time to help me with this
research, especially in the face of limited and ever-diminishing resources. Thank
you also to the dynamic network of people in London and elsewhere persistently
campaigning for the rights of asylum-seeking and refugee women. Their reports,
events and seminars helped keep me on track.

The best thing about a PhD is the people with whom you embark on it. I would like
to thank my primary supervisor, Dr Jonathan Dickens, for three years of tireless
enthusiasm, calmness, humour and insight. I couldn’t have asked for a better
supervisor. Thank you also to my secondary supervisor, Professor Gillian
Schofield, for steering me towards the PhD in the first place, and for the wealth of
knowledge she imparted. I am enormously grateful to them both, and to Professor
Margaret O’Brien, for the opportunities they afforded me outside my PhD research.
I have also been lucky enough to have some wonderful colleagues/friends, who
have supported me throughout and helped move the research along; thank you
especially to Birgit, Alexia, Billy, Vicki, Kamena and Laura. I would also like to
thank Jen for lending me her brilliant analytic mind at crucial points in the process.

Finally, my gratitude goes to my family. Thank you to my mum and my siblings,
Dan, Joe and Kate, for their endless love and encouragement, and for their
excellent proof-reading skills. I am indebted in particular to Joe for his invaluable
insight into the work. This thesis is dedicated to my mum and dad, who taught me
the importance of compassion and justice; I hope those values are reflected in this
research. Last but not least, thank you to Nick for his love, unshakable belief in me
and for giving me such a wonderful life away from work.
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Contents
Abstract 2
Acknowledgements 3
Contents 4
List of tables, figures and acronyms 8
PART ONE 9
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
Why is this research important? 10
The political context of seeking asylum in England 12
The process of seeking asylum in England 15
Research questions 17
Thesis outline 18
Chapter 2: Mothering in the context of the asylum process 21
Pre-migration experiences 21
Policy, service provision and accessibility: meeting needs 23
Living in a new country 34
Managing the consequences of poor maternal mental health 39
Summary 42
Chapter 3: Exploring maternal identity 43
Identity development 44
Understanding mothering expectations 50
Summary 56
Chapter 4: Experiencing and managing threats to maternal identity 57
Threats to maternal identity 57
Managing threats to maternal identity 62
Resilience theory 63
Countering threats to identity through impression management 69
Summary 78
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PART TWO 79
Chapter 5: Research design and process 79
Choosing qualitative research methods: theoretical implications 79
Choosing qualitative research methods: practical implications 82
Reflecting on my position 84
Constructivist grounded theory 89
Recruiting participants 90
Ethical practice 92
Data collection 94
Analysing the data 99
Chapter 6: Introducing the participants 102
Nationalities and religious beliefs 102
Reasons for seeking asylum and asylum status 102
Location and length of time spent in England 104
Family unit 105
Chapter 7: The participants’ experiences of being mothers in England 108
Traversing an opaque and hostile asylum system 109
Unemployment and inadequate government financial support 115
Poor housing provision 118
Physical health and accessing services 122
Children’s educational opportunities 123
Separation from children 124
Social isolation and social support 126
Negotiating a new culture 128
Present, absent and abusive paternal figures 135
Mental health and accessing services 136
Summary 137
Chapter 8: Exploring threatened maternal identity 139
Making sense of threatened maternal identity 141
Barriers to provision for children 143
Barriers to protecting children 147
Barriers to being emotionally available for children 150
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Barriers to supporting children’s development 153
Summary 154
Chapter 9: Protecting maternal identity against threats: a resilience
perspective 155
Self-esteem, self-efficacy and hopefulness 157
The ability to think about and reflect on thoughts, feelings and behaviour 161
Significant close relationships 164
Social support networks 167
Religion 169
Education, employment and training (EET) 171
Summary 173
Chapter 10: Constructing the ‘good’ mother identity through impression
management 175
Presenting oneself as a victim 177
Emphasising one’s ability to prioritise and guide children 182
Dismissing the impact of difficult experiences on oneself and one’s children 189
Summary 193
Chapter 11: Discussion and implications for practice 195
Summary of the thesis 196
Discussing the findings and relating them to previous research 198
Limitations of the study 211
Ideas for future research 212
Contribution to knowledge 214
Implications for policy and practice 214
Conclusion 220
Bibliography 221
Appendix A: Information flyer for participant recruitment 259
Appendix B: Information flyer for participant recruitment (professionals) 260
Appendix C: Pre-interview information sheet 261
Appendix D: Consent form 262
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Appendix E: Post-interview support sheet 263
Appendix F: Interview guide 264
Appendix G: Examples of post-interview reflections 265
Appendix H: The process of conducting grounded theory analysis 266
Appendix I: Memo example 268
Appendix J: Coding list (examples) 269

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List of tables, figures and acronyms

Tables

5.1 Gender, age and birth place of children both living with their
mothers and separated from them

Figures

5.1 Asylum status
5.2 Ages of children living with mother
5.3 Ages of separated children

Acronyms

CBT Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
DLR Discretionary Leave to Remain
EET Education, Employment and Training
FGM Female Genital Mutilation
ILR Indefinite Leave to Remain
IPV Intimate Partner Violence
IRC Immigration Removal Centre
NHS National Health Service
PTSD Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
UKBA United Kingdom Border Agency
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

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PART ONE
Chapter 1: Introduction

Asylum-seeking and refugee mothers in England are a vulnerable and marginalised
group of women who care for their children in challenging circumstances. This
thesis explores their mothering experiences, with a focus on how these experiences
impact on their maternal identity.

Existing research with asylum-seeking mothers and children migrating to a range of
Western countries shows that they face common, challenging experiences. Many
asylum-seeking mothers have encountered traumatic pre-migration and flight
experiences, including direct and indirect experiences of violence, loss, sexual
assault and rape (Ryan, Dooley, & Benson, 2008). Their children also often
experience trauma (Barenbaum, Ruchkin, & Schwab-Stone, 2004). Some mothers
are able to flee from their countries of origin with their children, while others leave
alone. On arrival in host countries, mothers encounter substantial post-migration
stressors that can further damage their physical and mental health, and that of their
children (Deacon & Sullivan, 2009; Refugee Council, 2009). Mothers are required
to navigate the legal process of seeking asylum, encounter language barriers and
frequently live in poverty (Penrose, 2002; Rights of Women, 2012). Some struggle
to negotiate the complexities of new childrearing norms as their children integrate
into the host society, and some face the prospect of mothering from a distance
(Dumper, 2002; Ochocka & Janzen, 2008; Suarez-Orozco, Todorova, & Louie,
2002). Many are separated from their family, friends, and in some cases, their
partners (Rousseau, Rufagarib, Bagilishyaa, & Meashama, 2004).

This thesis explores the experiences of mothers in England, looking at the ways in
which their experiences can have significant and negative consequences for
mothering, and in turn, for their evaluation of themselves as mothers.

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Why is this research important?

This research is important for a number of theoretical and practical reasons. Firstly,
the experiences of this specific group are under-researched. The processes of
mothering in the specific context of the UK asylum process have not been given
adequate attention. The existing research accounts for the experiences of women,
children, parents and families within a wider migratory context, and is often
conducted outside the UK, particularly in the US, Canada and Australia (Bhopal,
1998; Deacon & Sullivan, 2009; Lewig, Arney, Salveron, & Barredo, 2010b;
Liamputtong & Naksook, 2003; Samuel, 2009; Segal & Mayadas, 2005; Tummala-
Narra, 2004).

Secondly, asylum-seeking and refugee women are some of the most vulnerable
people in British society (Refugee Council, 2012). In order to better support this
vulnerable group, it is first necessary to increase our understanding of their
experiences. Asylum-seeking and refugee mothers do encounter many of the same
experiences faced by other groups of mothers living in difficult circumstances. For
example, like asylum-seeking and refugee mothers, migrant mothers may
encounter language barriers and the difficulties of negotiating a new culture.
Equally, some white British mothers living in poverty encounter similar difficulties
in terms of providing financially for their children. However, asylum-seeking and
refugee mothers’ experiences are unique in that they must face these challenges at
the same time as negotiating the asylum process and coping with pre-migration
trauma. These experiences do not just affect the wellbeing of mothers but also the
wellbeing of children. In particular, poverty, intimate partner violence (IPV),
inadequate housing and poor physical health, as well as the stress and anxiety
caused by pre-migration trauma and resettlement, can be detrimental to children’s
wellbeing (Bradley, 2007; British Medical Association, 2002; Georgsson,
Almqvist, & Broberg, 2011; Harker, 2006; Penrose, 2002). Research into the lives
of this marginalised population may help to improve service provision for them. In
addition, the recent economic recession in the UK has caused substantial cuts to the
government funding of asylum-seeking and refugee support services (Refugee
Council, 2011), which play a vital role in supporting these families in the absence
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