The Mediterranean: The Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II PDF
Preview The Mediterranean: The Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II
FERNAND BRAUDEL THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD IN THE AGE OF PHILIP II VOLUME TWO TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH BY SIAN REYNOLDS Contents PartTwo COLLECTIVE DESTINIES AND GENERAL TRENDS (continued) IV. EMPIRES page 657 I. The Origin ofEmpires 661 Turkishascendancy:from Asia Minor to the Balkans 661 TheTurksinSyriaand Egypt 667 TheTurkishEmpireseenfrom within 669 Spanishunity: the CatholicKings 669 CharlesV 672 PhilipII's Empire 675 Accidentand politicalexplanation 678 ., 2. The State: ResourcesandWeaknesses 681 The'civilservant" 681 Reversion andsaleofoffice 687 Localautonomy: someexamples 691 Financeand credit intheserviceoftheState 693 1600-1610: thecomebackofthesmallerstate? 701 V. SOCIETIES 704 1. Noble Reaction 705 Landlordsandpeasants 706 In Castile: Grandesand Titulosversus the King 709 Hidalgosand regidoresin Castile 715 Othernobilities 716 Thesuccessivearistocracies ofTurkey 718 TheCiftliks 724 2. TheDefectionofthe Bourgeoisie 725 Bourgeoisies ofthe Mediterranean 726 Thedefection ofthe bourgeoisie 729 Nobilityfor sale 731 Hostilitytothe newnobles 733 3. PovertyandBanditry 734·. Unfinished revolutions 735 Classstruggle? 738 Against vagrantsandvagabonds 739 Brigandseverywhere 743 Banditryand thestate 745 Banditsand nobles 749 Theincrease in banditry 752 Slaves 754 Possibleconclusions 755 650 Contents VI. CIVILIZATIONS 757 I. Mobility andStability ofCivilizations 757 Thesignificanceofanecdote 758 Howculturalexports travelled 760 Cultural diffusion and resistance 763 Greek civilization: did itsurvive1 769 Survivalsand culturalfrontiers , 770 An example ofa secondarycultural frontier: Ifriqiya 771 Theslow pace ofchangeand transfer 773 2. Overlapping Civilizations 776, TheTurksin theeasternBalkan plains 776 Islamin Spain: the Moriscos 780 Morisco problems 781 A geographyofMorisco Spain 785 Thedrama ofGranada 790 AftermathofGranada 792 Thesupremacy ofthe West 798 3. One Civilization Againstthe Rest: The Destinyofthe Jews 802 An unquestionablecivilization 804 The ubiquity ofJewish communities 811 Judaismand capitalism 814 Jews and the general economicsituation 820 Understanding Spain 823 4. The spreadofCivilization 826 Thestages oftheBaroque 827 Beggingthe question 829 Rome: centre for the diffusion ofMediterraneanculture 829 Anothercentre ofcultural diffusion: Spain 833 The supposed decline ofthe Mediterranean 835 836 YD. THE FORMS OF WAR I. Formal War: NavalSquadronsandFortifiedFrontiers 836 Warand technology 838 Warand states 840 Warand civilizations 842 Defensivefrontiers in theBalkans 844 TheVenetianlimes 845 On theDanube 847 Thecentral Mediterranean: alongthe coasts ofNaples and Sicily 849 The defence ofthe coasts ofItalyandSpain 853 Thecoasts ofNorth Africa 854 Thepresidios: only a second best 859 Forand against raids 862 Defensive psychology 864 2. Piracy: A Substitutefor Declared War 865 Piracy: an ancient and widespread industry 866 Privateeringsponsored bycities 869 The prizes 972 Thechronology ofprivateering 872 :-:.:-:.:.:.:.:.:.:•••:.:.:.:.:.;.:.;.;.:.;.;.:.;.;.;.;.;.; y••••••••••••••••••••••••••" •••••••• Contents 651 Christian privateers 873 Christian piracy in theLevant 877 Thefirst brilliantage ofAlgiers 880 Thesecond brilliantage ofAlgiers 882 Conclusion? 886 Ransomingprisoners 887 Onewarreplacesanother 890 vm.BY WAY OP CONCLUSION: CONJUNCTURE AND CONJUNCTURES 892 A wordofwarning 892 Theseculartrend 893 Intermediate-termfluctuations 896 The bankruptciesoftheSpanishCrownandeconomicfluctuations 897 Warat homeand abroad 897 Conjunctureand history 899 Short-termcrises 900 Part Three EVENTS. POLITICS AND PEOPLE I. 1550-1559: WAR AND PEACE IN EUROPE 904 I. The Originsofthe War 904 ., 1545-1550: peacein the Mediterranean 904 TheAfrica affair 907 Miihlbetgand after 911 z. War inthe Mediterranean andoutsidethe Mediterranean 918 Thefall ofTripoli: 14thAugust, 1551 919 1552: the flames ofwar 923 CorsicabecomesFrench and England Spanish 926 TheseveralabdicationsofCharlesV: 1554-1556 931 3. The ReturnofWar: Initiative StillComesfrom the North 937 The TruceofVaucelles is broken 937 Saint-Quentin 940 The treaty ofCateau-Cambresis 945 Philip II'sreturn to Spain 949 4. Spain in Mid-Century 954 The Protestant scare 954 Political discontent 957 Financial difficulties 960 , 1I. THE LAST SIX YEARS OF TURKISH SUPREMACY: 1559-1565 967 I. War Against the Turk: A Spanish Folly? 967 ThebreakdownofTurcp-Spanish negotiations 967 ThenavalsupremacyoftheTurks 970 The Djerbaexpedition 973 z. Spain's Recovery 987 Theyears 1561 to 1564 987 A double enemy: thecorsairsand thewinterseas, 1561-1564 992 TheCorsicanuprising 1001 Peacein Europe 1004 Contents A few figures onthe maritime recovery ofSpain 1007 Don GarciadeToledo 1012 3. Malta: A TrialofStrength (l8th May-Bth September, 1565) 1014 Was ita surprise? 1014 Theresistanceofthe Knights 1017 ThereliefofMalta 1017 Therole ofSpainand PhilipII 1020 m. ORIGINS OF THE HOLY LEAGUE: 1566-1570 1027 I. Netherlands orMediterranean? 1027 ' TheelectionofPius V 1027 TheTurksin Hungaryand in theAdriatic 1030 War breaksoutagain in Hungary 1035 TheNetherlands in 1566 1038 1567-1568:the Mediterraneaneclipsed by the Netherlands 1044 2. The WarofGranada: A Turning-Point 1055 The risingtide ofwar 1055 ThebeginningofthewarofGranada 1060 OneconsequenceofGranada: Euldj 'Alltakes Tunis 1066 Granadaand the warofCyprus 1068 TheearlystagesofthewarofCyprus 1073 ThereliefofCyprus • 1082 IV. LEPANTO 1088 1. TheBattleof7th October, 1571 1088 A delayed start 1089 France: an unknown diplomaticfactor 1092 WillDonJohn andthe fleet arrive in time? 1096 TheTurks beforeLepanto 1098 Thebattle of7thOctober llOO A victorythat led nowhere? 1103 2.1572: A Dramatic Year 1106 TheFrenchcrisis up to the St. BartholomewMassacre, 24thAugust, 1572 1106 DonJohn's ordersand counter-orders, June-July, 1572 1114 TheMoreaexpeditions 1118 3. Venice's'Betrayal'andthe Two CapturesofTunis1573-1574 1125 Venice'scase 1125 The capture ofTunis by Don John ofAustria: another victory that led nowhere 1127 ThelossofTunis: 13thSeptember, 1574 1133 Peaceatlastin the Mediterranean . 1139 V. TURCO-SPANISH PEACE TREATIES: 1577-1584 1143 1. Margliani'sPeaceMission, 1578-1581 1144 Backto the beginning: PhilipII'sfirst peacemoves 1144 Negotiationsin DonJohn's time 1146 MartindeAcuna: the outsiderwhosucceeded 1150 Giovanni Margliani 1152 The 1581 agreement 1161 Contents 653 2. WarLeavesthe Centreofthe Mediterranean 1165 Turkeyand Persia 1166 Thewaragainst Persia 1168 TheTurksinthe IndianOcean 1174 TheinvasionofPortugal: turning-point ofthe century '1176 Alcazarquivir 1178 1580: the Coup 1182 Spainleaves the Mediterranean 1184 VI. OUT OF THE LIMELIGHT: THE MEDITERRANEAN AFTER 1580 1186 I.ProblemsandDifficultiesfor the Turks 1188 Mter1589: rebellion in NorthMricaand in Islam 1189 TheTurkishfinancial crisis 1195 1593-1606: the resumption of major offensives on the Hungarian front 1196 2. From theFrench Civil Wars to Open War with Spain: 1589-1598 1204 Thewarsofreligion in MediterraneanFrance 1205 TheFranco-Spanishwar: 1595-1598 1216 The peaceofVervins 1219 3. TheEndofNaval War 1222 ., Falsealarmin 1591 1223 Gian Andrea Doria refuses to fight the Turkish fleet: August- September, 1596 1230 1597-1600 1231 Falsealarm or missoo opportunityin 1601? 1232 Thedeath ofPhilipII, 13thSeptember, 1598 1234 CONCLUSION 1238 SOURCES 1245 I. UnpublishedSources 1245 TheSpanishArchives 1246 TheFrenchArchives 1250 TheItalian Archives 1253 TheVaticanArchives 1258 TheRagusa Archives 1258 EuropeanArchives outside the Mediterranean and France 1259 2. CartographicalSources 1261 Modern reference works 1261 Originalsources 1261 3. PrintedSources ,1265 Majorcollections ofpublished documents 1265 Essentialworks 1273 Bibliography: Publishedworks inalphabetical order 1276 INDEX OF PROPER NAMES 1317 GENERAL INDEX 1357 • List of Illustrations 1. Galleys in a storm, in harbour and in battle 2. Barbarossa 3. Philip II 4.Insight ofTunis (1535) Photo A.C.L., Brussels 5. TheBattleofLepanto, artist's impression, Photo Mas, Barulona 6. Thesiege ofa fort in AfricaPhoto Mas, Barcelona 7. Don John ofAustriaPhoto Giraudon,Paris 8. Sixtus VPhoto Alinari-Giraudon,Paris 9. CharlesVPhoto Giraudbn,Paris 10. Philip II (circa 1555)Photo Giraudon,Paris List of Figures 55. The population of the Balkan peninsula at the beginning of the six- teenthcentury 662 56. Statefinance and the general pricesituation 680 57. State budgets and the general price situation: 1. The case ofVenice; 2. The case ofFrance 684 58. State budgets and the general pricesituation: 3. Thecase ofSpain 686 59. Theasientosand economic live in Castile 694 60.TheLuoghiofthe Casa di San Giorgio 1509-1625 700 61. Moriscos and Christians in Valenciain 1609 782 62. Populationchanges in Valencia between 1565 and 1609 784 63. TheDuke ofAlva moves troopsto Flanders, April-August, 1567 838 64. Theprivateers ofTuscany 876 65. Christian prisonersontheir way to Constantinople 890 66.Loans obtained by Charles V and Philip II from Antwerp financiers, 1515-1556 942 67. Philip II at work, 20thJanuary, 1569 1226 68. Philip IIat work, 23rd October, 1576 1227 VOLUME TWO ., Part Two (continued) CHAPTER IV Empires Wemustgofar backin time, to thebeginningofa longprocessofpolitical evolution, before we can achieve a valid perspective on the sixteenth century. At theendofthefourteenth century, the Mediterranean belongedto its towns, to the city-states scattered around its shores. Therewereofcourse already, here and there, a few territorial states, fairly homogeneous in character and comparatively large, bordering the sea itself: the Kingdom ofNaples- 'ilReame' - theoutstandingexample; the ByzantineEmpire; QIthepossessionsunited under theCrownofAragon. Butin manycases, these states were merely the extensions ofpowerful cities: Aragon in the broad sense'was a by-product of the dynamic rise of Barcelona; the ByzantineEmpireconsistedalmostentirelyoftheextendedsuburbsoftwo cities, Constantinopleand Salonica. By the fifteenth century, the city-state was already losing ground; first signs ofth~crisis could be detected in Italy duringthe early years ofthe century. Infifty years, the map ofthe Peninsula was entirely redrawn, to the advantage ofsome cities and the detriment of others. It was only a partial eclipse. The upheaval failed to achieve what may have been at issue - though I doubt it - the unification of the Italian Peninsula. Naples, VeniceandMilaninturnprovedunequal to thetask. Theattempt would in any case have been premature: too many particular interests were at stake, too many cities eager for an individual existence stood in the wayofthis difficult birth. Soitisonlypartlytrue that there was a de clinein the power ofthecity-state. ThePeace ofLodi, in 1454,confirmed both a balance of power and a deadlock: the political map of Italy, al though simplified, was still a patchwork. Meanwhile, a similar crisis was becomingapparent throughout the rest ofthe Mediterranean. Everywhere the city-state, precarious and narrow based,stoodrevealedinadequatetoperformthepoliticalandfinancialtasks nowfacingit. Itrepresenteda fragileform ofgovernment, doomedto ex tinction,aswasstrikinglydemonstratedbythecaptureofConstantinoplein 1453, thefall ofBarcelona in 1472 andthecollapse ofGranada in 1492.1 Itwas becomingclearthatonlytherival ofthecity-state, theterritorial state.2 rich in land and manpower, would in future be able to meet the 1Seeabove, Vol. I. p. 339. 2I have deliberatelyavoided the termnation-state. 658 Collective Destinies expenseofmodernwarfare;itcouldmaintainpaidarmiesand affordcostly artillery; it was soon to indulge in the added extravagance of full-scale naval wars. And its advance was long to be irreversible. Examples of the new pattern emerging at the end of the fifteenth century are Aragon under John II; Louis Xl's expansion beyond thePyrenees;Turkey under Mubammad II, the conqueror of Constantinople; later France under CharlesVIIIwithhisItalianambitionsandSpainin theageoftheCatholic Kings. Withoutexception, thesestatesallhad their beginnings far inland, many miles from the Mediterranean coast,3 usually in poorregions where there were fewer cities to pose obstacles. In Italy by contrast, the wealth andverydensityofthecitiesmaintainedweaknessesanddivisionsasmodem structures emerged only with difficulty from the grip of the past, par ticularlywhenthatpasthad beena gloriousoneandmuchofits brilliance remained. Pastglorycouldmeanpresentweakness, aswasrevealed·bythe first Turco-Venetian war, from 1463 to 1479, in the course ofwhich the Signoria, inadequately protected by her small territory, was eventually obliged, despitehertechnical superiority, to abandon thestruggle;· it was demonstrated once more during the tragic occupation of Otranto by the Turks in 14805 and appearedeven morestrikinglyinthe beginningsofthe storm unleashed by Charles VIII's invasion of Italy in 1494. Was there ever a more extraordinary military display than that swift march on Naples, when, according to Machiavelli, the invader had merely to send his billeting officers ahead to mark with chalk the houses selected for his troops' lodgings?Oncethealarm wasover, it waseasy to makelight ofit, even to taunt the French ambassador Philippe de Commynes, as Filippo Tron, a Venetian patrician, did at theend ofJuly, 1495. Headded that he' was not deceived by the intentions attuouted to the king of France, 'de siring to go to the Holy Land when he really wanted to become no less than signoredi tutta l'Italia'.6 Suchbravadowasallverywell, buttheeventmarkedthebeginningofa train ofdisasters for the Peninsula, the logical penalty for its wealth, its position at the epicentre ofEuropean politics and, undoubtedly the key factor, thefragility ofits sophisticated political structures, ofthe intricate mechanisms which went to make up the 'Italian equilibrium'. It was no accidentiffromnowonItalianthinkers,schooledbydisasterand thedaily lesson ofevents, were to meditateabove all upon politics and the destiny of the state, from Machiavelli and Guicciardini in the early part of the century to Paruta, Giovanni Botero orAmmirato at theend. Italy:thatextraordinarylaboratoryforstatesmen.Theentirenationwas preoccupied with politics, every manto his own passion, from the porter in the market-place to the barber in his shop or the artisans in the 3A. Siegfried, op. cit., p. 184. 4H. Kretschmayr, op. cit., II, p. 382. 5SeestudiesbyEnrico Perito,E.Carusiand PietroEgidi(nos.2625,2630and2626 inSanchezAlonso~s bibliography). GA.d.~., Modena, Venezia VIII, Aldobrandino Guidoni to the Duke, Venice, 31stJuly, 1495.
The list of books you might like
