A Manual For Control of Infectious Diseases in Amphibian Survival Assurance Colonies and Reintroduction Programs Proceedings from a Workshop: 16–18 February 2009 San Diego Zoo Cover photos courtesy of Allan Pessier and Ron Holt . A contribution of the IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group in collaboration with Amphibian Ark, San Diego Zoo, and Zoo Atlanta IUCN encourages meetings, workshops and other fora for the consideration and analysis of issues related to conservation, and believes that reports of these meetings are most useful when broadly disseminated. The opinions and views expressed by the authors may not necessarily reflect the formal policies of IUCN, its Commissions, its Secretariat or its members. © Copyright CBSG 2010 The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Pessier, A.P. and J.R. Mendelson (eds.). 2010. A Manual for Control of Infectious Diseases in Amphibian Survival Assurance Colonies and Reintroduction Programs. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group: Apple Valley, MN. An electronic version of this report can be downloaded at www.cbsg.org <http://www.cbsg.org/> . This project was supported by grant LG‐25‐08‐0066 from the Institute of Museum and Library Services. Any views, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication do not necessarily represent those of the Institute of Museum and Library Services. A MANUAL FOR CONTROL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN AMPHIBIAN SURVIVAL ASSURANCE COLONIES AND REINTRODUCTION PROGRAMS EDITORS: ALLAN P. PESSIER & JOSEPH R. MENDELSON III PROCEEDINGS FROM A WORKSHOP: 16–18 FEBRUARY 2009 Zoological Society of San Diego Organized by: Allan P. Pessier, DVM, Dipl. ACVP San Diego Zoo & Joseph R. Mendelson III, PhD Zoo Atlanta Facilitated by: Onnie Byers, PhD IUCN Conservation Breeding Specialist Group Table of Contents 1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………….………………………………….……….. 8 2. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS………………………………………………….………………………….….……….. 10 3. RISK ASSESSMENT………………………………………………………….….……………………….…………. 11 3.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………….………………..………….…………. 11 3.1 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REINTRODUCTION AND TRANSLOCATION PROGRAMS………………………… .………………………….………… 11 3.2 DISEASE RISK MITIGATION FOR CAPTIVE BREEDING AND REINTRODUCTION PROGRAMS…………………………….………………… ……………………..….…………. 13 3.3 TRANSLOCATION……………………………………….…… ……………………….…………… 19 3.4 REFERENCES……………………………………..…………… ……………………….………….. 20 4. BIOSECURITY………………………………………………………………………………………….……………. 21 4.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………..………………….…………. 21 4.1 WHAT IS "BIOSECURITY"?........................................................................... 22 4.2 BIOSECURITY DEFINITIONS…………………………………… ………….…………….….…. 23 4.3 COSMOPOLITAN COLLECTIONS AND RISKS OF DISEASE FOR WILD AMPHIBIANS… ... 23 4.4 LEVELS OF BIOSECURITY…………………………………………………………………..…..… 24 4.5 SUMMARY OF BEST PRACTICES AND ISOLATION SECURITY LEVELS……………….….... 30 4.6 BIOSECURITY PRACTICES……………………………………………………………………….… 33 4.7 STAFF TRAINING AND IMPLEMENTATION OF BIOSECURITY PRACTICES………………. 33 4.8 LONG‐TERM ISOLATION OF AMPHIBIANS DESTINED FOR REINTRODUCTION TO THE WILD……………………………………………………………….…………….…….. 35 4.9 FACILITIES FOR LONG‐TERM ISOLATION……………………………………………….….…. 36 4.10 HUSBANDRY STAFF HYGIENE AND PROTECTIVE CLOTHING……………………….….…. 37 4.11 HUSBANDRY ROUTINES……………………………………………………………………….... 39 4.12 ENCLOSURE SANITATION……………………………………………………………………...… 40 4.13 EQUIPMENT, ENCLOSURE SUBSTRATES AND DECORATION…………………….….....… 41 4.14 WASTEWATER DISPOSAL…………………………………………………………………..….… 42 4.15 SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL……………………………………………………………….………… 44 4.16 SOURCES OF WATER………………………………………………………………………….….. 45 4.17 SOURCES OF FOOD……………………………………………………………………………...… 45 4.18 FACILITY DESIGN AND BUILDING SPECIFICATIONS………………………………….………. 46 4.19 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………….……..… 47 5. CLEANING AND DISINFECTION…………………………………………………………………..…………….… 50 5.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………….… 50 5.1 PRINCIPLES OF CLEANING & DISINFECTION………………………………..……………….…. 51 5.2 CHEMICAL DISINFECTANTS………………………………………………………..…………….… 53 5.3 NON‐CHEMICAL METHODS OF DISINFECTION………………………………………………... 56 5.4 CLEANING AND DISINFECTION OF ANIMAL ENCLOSURES……………………………..……. 57 5.5 DISINFECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS……………………………………….…………... 58 5.6 DISINFECTION AND STERILIZATION OF SUBSTRATES AND CAGE FURNITURE.…………... 59 5.7 DISINFECTION OF LIVE PLANTS………………………………………………………….……….. 60 5.8 DISINFECTION AND STERILIZATION OF WATER…………………………………….……….... 61 5.9 DISINFECTION AND BIOSECURITY IN THE FIELD……………………………………..………… 62 5.10 TABLE OF DISINFECTANTS…………………………………………………………….…….……. 64 5. 11 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….….…….... 66 6. QUARANTINE…………………………………………………………………………………………..…….….... 69 6.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………..……………. 69 6.1 GOALS AND DEVELOPMENT OF QUARANTINE PROGRAMS……………………..……...... 69 6.2 RISK ASSESSMENT IN AMPHIBIAN QUARANTINE………………………………..…………... 71 6.3 QUARANTINE FACILITY AND QUARANTINE STAFF CONSIDERATIONS………..…….….… 72 6.4 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY CONSIDERATIONS IN QUARANTINE……………….…..…… ……... 74 6.5 LENGTH OF THE QUARANTINE PERIOD……………………………………….……..….…..... 78 6.6 MEDICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN QUARANTINE…………………………………………...…… 80 6.7 LABORATORY TESTING AND DISEASE TREATMENT IN QUARANTINE…………….…..….. 83 6.8 NECROPSY……………………………………………………………………………..……..……... 84 6.9 TESTING AND TREATMENT FOR INTERNAL PARASITES………………………..…….…...…. 85 6.10 TESTING AND TREATMENT FOR THE AMPHIBIAN CHYTRID FUNGUS……..….….….…… 87 6.11 TESTING FOR RANAVIRUS…………………………………………………………....…….…….. 91 6.12 CLINICAL PATHOLOGY (HEMATOLOGY AND CLINICAL BIOCHEMISTRY)……..………….. 94 6.13 OTHER INFECTIOUS DISEASES ENCOUNTERED IN QUARANTINE……………..….….……. 95 6.14 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………….……. 99 7. DIAGNOSTIC TESTING………………………………………………………………………………………….… 102 7.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….……………………….….…… 102 7.1 DISEASE SURVEILLANCE………………………………………….…………………………..…… 103 7.2 EVALUATION OF LABORATORIES THAT PERFORM MOLECULAR DIAGNOSTIC TESTING………………………………………….……………..………..……. 107 7.3 DIAGNOSTIC TESTING FOR THE AMPHIBIAN CHYTRID FUNGUS (BATRACHOCHYTRIUM DENDROBATIDIS)………………………………………………………..……..….. 111 7.4 RANAVIRUS INFECTION…………………………………………………….…..……….……….. 125 7.5 PERKINSUS‐LIKE PROTOZOAL DISEASE OF RANID FROGS…………………..…….………. 135 7.6 DISEASE REPORTING AND PARTICIPATION IN DISEASE DATABASES.………..….………. 137 7.7 TESTING AND SURVEILLANCE FOR FECAL PARASITES………………….…..…..…..……… 138 7.8 HEMATOLOGY AND SERUM BIOCHEMISTRY……………………………….…….………….. 148 7.9 LABORATORIES THAT ACCEPT AMPHIBIAN SAMPLES………………..….…….………….. 149 7.10 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………..……………….………….. 151 8. TREATMENT AND CONTROL OF DISEASES……………………………………..……………….…..……... 159 8.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………….……….… 159 8.1 TREATMENT AND CONTROL METHODS FOR THE AMPHIBIAN CHYTRID FUNGUS…..…160 8.2 CONTROL OF RANAVIRUS INFECTIONS…………………………………………………..….... 171 8.3 CREATING SPECIFIC‐PATHOGEN‐FREE AMPHIBIAN POPULATIONS……….……………. 173 8.4 PARASITE MONITORING AND TREATMENT………………………………….…………..…… 178 8.5 ELECTROLYTE FORMULAS…………………………………………………………..………..….. 181 8.6 EUTHANASIA…………………………………………………………………………..……….….. 182 8.7 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………..…….……… 182 9. NECROPSY…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….. 186 9.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………….…………. 186 9.1 NECROPSY PREPARATION…………………………………………….…………..……………… 187 9.2 MATERIALS NEEDED…………………………………………………..………………………….. 187 9.3 PERFORMING THE NECROPSY……………………………………….………………………….. 188 9.4 ANATOMICAL NOTES FOR AMPHIBIAN NECROPSIES………….…………….……………… 192 9.5 SAMPLE COLLECTION DURING MORTALITY EVENTS……………….……..……………….. 195 9.6 SHIPMENT OF SAMPLES………………………………………………………..….……………… 196 9.7 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………..…….…………………. 197 APPENDIX 1: METHODS TO INDIVIDUALLY IDENTIFY THE AMPHIBIAN SPECIMEN……………….…. 198 APPENDIX 2: WASTEWATER TREATMENT......................................................................... 217 APPENDIX 3: ISOLATED AMPHIBIAN ROOMS AT OMAHA’S HENRY DOORLY ZOO…………...……. 221 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has estimated that 30% of all amphibian species are threatened with extinction, and at least 484 species are Critically Endangered (http://www.iucnredlist.org). The major contributing factor of the most drastic amphibian population declines is the disease chytridiomycosis caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. This fungus, disseminated worldwide by anthropogenic means, can reduce amphibian biodiversity at new locations in alarmingly short periods of time. Thus, understanding and controlling infectious diseases such as chytridiomycosis have become a major focus of both in situ and ex situ amphibian conservation efforts worldwide. To formulate a response to the crisis of global amphibian extinctions, the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the IUCN convened an international group of leading amphibian biologists at an Amphibian Conservation Summit resulting in the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP; this document is available for download at http://www.amphibians.org). The ACAP concluded that the amphibian extinction crisis “requires a global response at an unprecedented scale from governments, corporations, civil society and the scientific community.” The ACAP calls for creation of survival assurance colonies that bring representatives of critically endangered amphibian species into captivity for safekeeping. Although remediation of factors contributing to species extinction is preferable to captivity for endangered animals, the rapidity of amphibian declines makes it likely that innumerable species will be lost long before suitable solutions are discovered. Therefore, the critical role of survival assurance colonies is to preserve the option of re‐introducing species to their native habitat at a later time. The global effort to develop such programs is coordinated by the Amphibian Ark, a joint effort of the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), the IUCN/SSC, Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) and Amphibian Specialist Group (www.amphibianark.org). The Amphibian Ark estimates 500 amphibian species require immediate ex situ intervention through establishment of survival assurance colonies. This is a massive undertaking that calls upon the resources of a wide variety of institutions including zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, natural history museums, governmental agencies, and universities. Yet, as institutions prepare for the “call to action” from the Amphibian Ark and IUCN, there is a global reality that the field of amphibian husbandry in general is still very much in its infancy and expertise in amphibian disease control is limited to a very few institutions worldwide. In response to urgent needs created by the rapid expansion of amphibian survival assurance colonies worldwide, guidelines for Best Practices for permanent quarantine and facility biosecurity were drafted as part of the CBSG/WAZA Amphibian Ex Situ Conservation Planning Workshop held in El Valle, Panama, in 2006 (proceedings available at http://www.amphibianark.org/downloads.htm). In addition, the final report of the Panama workshop outlined additionally needed Action Steps to develop medical protocols for health screening, prophylactic treatment of important infectious diseases and disease surveillance in captive amphibian collections. Elements of these Action Steps have already emerged since 2006 amidst a flood of new information in the primary literature on amphibian disease testing, disease control protocols, and the development of creative approaches to meeting strict biosecurity guidelines within existing ex situ institutional facilities and culture. The present manual aims to formally address these Action Steps by bringing together recommendations from husbandry experts and veterinarians with expertise in amphibian medicine and disease risk assessment to consolidate new information into simple consensus‐based protocols that can be easily adapted by the wide variety of institutions that maintain captive amphibians. This manual is intended to serve as a “one‐stop shopping” resource for basic consensus based recommendations concerning amphibian quarantine, necropsy, facility biosecurity, facility hygiene & disease treatment, and disease screening & surveillance. These are to be viewed as guidelines and recommendations and not as mandates or requirements; no simple manual can take into account the specifics of individual programs and needs. Importantly, this manual is not intended as a replacement for a complete text on amphibian veterinary medicine (e.g., Amphibian Medicine and Captive Husbandry, by K. M. Wright & B. R. Whitaker, Malabar Publ., 2001). Similarly, although the topics of nutrition and basic husbandry are discussed throughout, this manual is intended merely as a complement to existing texts on amphibian husbandry, such as the Amphibian Husbandry Resource Guide, Edition 1.0 (Association of Zoos and Aquariums Publ., 2008) or species‐specific protocols such as that prepared for the Panamanian golden frog (http://www.ranadorada.org/species‐info.html). This manual is intended to be a detailed technical resource for veterinarians and senior staff in ex situ or conservation programs, to guide them as they develop new or additional amphibian programs, design routine screening protocols or encounter infectious disease issues in current collections, or move animals among collections or reintroduce them into the wild. This manual will be iterative, with subsequent editions made available following an additional workshop planned for 2011, and occasionally thereafter. We hope users from all backgrounds find this manual to be a useful primary resource and, importantly, a convenient portal into the primary literature on amphibian veterinary science and diseases. The amphibians of the world are in need of considerable assistance to avoid additional extinctions, and we hope this manual expedites some of that needed assistance. Allan P. Pessier Joseph R. Mendelson III 25 December, 2009 CHAPTER 2 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS The following persons contributed directly to the final content that appears in this version of the manual. Most of them participated in the workshop, held at San Diego Zoo in February, 2009, and added important comments to drafts of various chapters as they neared completion. Diane Barber, Fort Worth Zoo Eric Baitchman; Zoo New England Don Boyer, San Diego Zoo Onnie Byers, IUCN Conservation Breeding Specialist Group Leigh Ann Clayton, National Aquarium Baltimore Josh Cook, University of Georgia Ann Duncan, Detroit Zoo Ryan DeVoe, North Carolina Zoo Shannon Ferrell, Fort Worth Zoo Ron Gagliardo, Amphibian Ark & Zoo Atlanta Michael Garner, Northwest ZooPath Richard Gibson, Amphibian Ark & Chester Zoo Andrea Johnson, San Diego Zoo Megan Jones, San Diego Zoo Kim Lovich, San Diego Zoo Bob Mailloux, Sandfire Dragon Ranch Denise McAloose, Wildlife Conservation Society‐Bronx Zoo Joseph Mendelson, Zoo Atlanta Pat Morris, San Diego Zoo Isamara Navarrete, San Diego Zoo R. Andrew Odum, Toledo Zoo Brad Lock, Zoo Atlanta Samuel Rivera, Zoo Atlanta Allan Pessier, San Diego Zoo Jennifer Pramuk, Wildlife Conservation Society‐Bronx Zoo Michael Ready, Sandfire Dragon Ranch Oliver Ryder, San Diego Zoo Danna Schock, University of Calgary Mark Schrenzel, San Diego Zoo Lee Skerratt, James Cook University Edythe Sonntag, Michigan State University Simone Vitali, Perth Zoo Carmel Witte, San Diego Zoo Kevin Wright, Arizona Exotic Animal Hospital Kevin Zippel, Amphibian Ark
Description: