The Making of Language

257 Pages·2011·1.169 MB·

by  Mike Beaken

The Making of Language-cover artwork:Layout 1 29/09/2010 14:43 Page 1
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DUNEDIN
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SECOND EDITION
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THE MAKING OF LANGUAGE

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Mike Beaken
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The Making of Language presents an alternative to the a
prevalent view of language as the product of human genetics. n
It argues instead that language originated in the cooperative
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activity of early humans. “We made language, as we made
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pots and pans”.
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Mike Beaken shows how early forms of communication g
developed in step with technology, culture and social organi- e
sation. This edition considers also the significance of music in
relation to other forms of communication.
SECOND
EDITION
This thoroughly revised edition covers a wide range of disci-
plines and reflects relevant published research since the first
edition appeared in 1996. Written clearly and free from jargon, M
it will be welcomed by anyone interested in the evolution and i
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origin of language. e

B
‘[Beaken’s] pioneering introduction to the question provides e
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one of the clearest overviews, from a Marxist perspective, of k
the origins of language and the social nature of language’ en DUNEDIN
Marnie Holborow.
SECOND EDITION
Dr Mike Beaken is a lecturer in Communication Studies at
Sheffield Hallam University.
THE MAKING
Front cover photograph: Ethiopian Tribal People by Leslie Woodhead
© Eye Ubiquitous/Hutchison. Design: Mark Blackadder
OF LANGUAGE
Mike Beaken
ISBN: 978-1-906716-14-1
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9 781906 716141 N
The Making of Language

The Making of Language
Mike Beaken
DUNEDIN
Published by
Dunedin Academic Press Ltd
Hudson House
8 Albany Street
Edinburgh EH1 3QB
Scotland
ISBN 978-1-906716-14-1
© 2011 Mike Beaken
First edition published 1996 (by Edinburgh University Press)
Second Edition 2011
The right of Mike Beaken to be identified as the author of this book has been asserted by
him in accordance with sections 77 & 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means or stored in any retrieval system of any nature without prior written
permission, except for fair dealing under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988 or in accordance with a licence issued b the Copyright Licensing Society in
respect of photocopying or reprographic reproduction. Full acknowledgment as
to author, publisher and source must be given. Application for permission for any
other use of copyright material should be made in writing to the publisher.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Typeset by Makar Publishing Production, Edinburgh
Printed in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe Ltd.
To Kate, Jack and Joe

Contents
Contents
Introduction xiii
Chapter 1: The Story so Far 1
Neglect and rediscovery 1
Soviet tradition 3
The search for proto-languages 4
Chomsky and Universal Grammar 6
The end of Universal Grammar? 7
Variety in languages 7
Recursion 8
Mathematics and recursion 9
Long-distance WH-movement 9
Templates 9
How children learn language 10
Darwin and language origins 12
Problem of biological reductionism 14
Animal communication 14
Languages and ‘descent with variation’ 16
Genetics 18
Brains and language 19
Children’s brains and language 23
Brain plasticity 25
Finally 25
Chapter 2: Language and Labour 28
Traditions of linguistic thought 28
What is meant by labour? 28
Relevance to language origins? 29
Origins of communication in labour 29
The sign, a solution to a problem 30
Labour, language and consciousness 32
Language and technology 33
Significance of tools 33
Division of labour 34
Forms of ideality 35
The ideality of money 35
Comments on ideality 37
Language as a form of ideality 37
Concepts, knowledge, language 38
Notions and concepts 38
The concept of seed 40
Historical concepts—the best available 41
Language as a power 42
vii
viii Contents
Words as controllers: linguistic determinism 42
Two-sided nature of words 43
Language as tool 44
Memorising 44
Knot-tying 44
Language as a means to self-control 45
Decision-making 46
Social activity and register 46
Registers and linguistic change 48
Conclusion 49
Chapter 3: Apes, Hominids and Common Ancestors 52
Chimpanzees’ life in the wild 53
Chimp intelligence 54
Chimp egocentrism 55
Studies of chimpanzee communication 55
Limits to symbol use 56
The ideational and the interpersonal 57
Chimpanzee gestures in the wild 58
How important are gestures to apes? 59
Why can’t chimps speak? 60
The vocal apparatus of chimpanzees 60
They are governed by emotions 62
They use noise in a different way from us 62
Gaining self-control 63
Music and dance 65
Co-operation among chimps 65
Embryonic co-operation and language 66
Chapter 4: Gesture and Origins of Meaning 70
The gesture theory of language origins 70
Supporting evidence 71
Existing gesture languages 71
Children’s language development 72
Language pathology 73
The characteristics of gestural language 73
Technical progress 74
Learning time 75
The form of early gestural language 75
‘Semantic phonology’ and the origins of syntax in gesture 76
Life and syntax 77
The development of early gestures 77
Disadvantages of gesture? 79
Differential access to information? 79
Can gesture support abstract ideas? 79
Iconicity v. arbitrariness 80
Speed of processing information 81
Overload of information 81
Natural selection of speech? 82
Gesture today 83
Contents ix
Chapter 5: The Making of Human Beings 86
The upright apes 90
Tools 93
Australopithecine language? 93
Homo habilis and Homo erectus 94
Anatomy of Homo erectus 94
Sexual dimorphism reduced 95
Brain size 95
Tools and technology 95
Hunters? 96
Children 96
The human factor 97
The home-base and the generation taboo 98
How are taboos relevant to language? 99
Language in this period 99
Tools and language 101
Language of Homo erectus? 102
Archaic Homo sapiens 102
Technology 104
Fire, diet and anatomy 104
Social effects of fire 105
Anatomy for language among archaic Homo sapiens 106
Language among archaic Homo sapiens 106
A true transition 107
The Neanderthals 107
Anatomy 107
Were they a separate species? 108
Neandrophobia 109
Could they speak? 111
What happened in Europe? 112
Genetic tests 113
The ‘human revolution’ 113
Development of the tribe 114
Brother looks after sister 115
Effect of taboos 116
Origins of hunter gatherer life 117
Features of hunter gatherer life 118
Egalitarianism 118
No formal system of political organisation or control 119
All problems dealt with collectively 119
Mutual dependence across groups 119
Group size and resources adapted to the low 120
Importance of totemism 120
Language for survival among foragers 120
Oral traditions for survival 120
Magic as part of oral tradition 121
Magic in the Upper Palaeolithic 122
Summary 122