the leadership styles of the persian kings in herodotus' histories

155 Pages·2017·1.15 MB·English

THE LEADERSHIP STYLES OF THE
PERSIAN KINGS IN HERODOTUS’
HISTORIES
AthesissubmittedtotheUniversityofManchesterforthedegreeofDoctorofPhilosophyin
theFacultyofHumanities
2017
StephenFitzsimons
Schoolof Arts,LanguagesandCultures
Contents
Abstract..............................................................................................................................................6
Declaration.........................................................................................................................................7
CopyrightStatement.........................................................................................................................8
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................9
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................10
0.1Introductoryremarks................................................................................................................10
0.2.1Modernleadershiptheories..................................................................................................12
0.2.1.1Hook’sclassification..........................................................................................................13
0.2.1.2Charismaticleadership......................................................................................................14
0.2.1.3Transformationalleadership..............................................................................................16
0.2.1.4Acautionarynote................................................................................................................16
0.2.2LeadershipandtheHistories................................................................................................16
0.2.3PersiankingshipwithintheHistories..................................................................................17
0.2.4 AspectsofPersianleadershipwithinHerodotus’accountsofthePersiankings..........21
0.2.4.1.Strategicconcerns/risk.....................................................................................................22
0.2.4.2Successionplanning..........................................................................................................24
0.2.5Stylesofleadership...............................................................................................................24
0.2.5.1 Cyrus as πατήρ ................................................................................................................... 25
0.2.5.2 Cambyses as δεσπότης ..................................................................................................... 26
0.2.5.3 Darius as κάπηλος .............................................................................................................. 26
0.2.5.4Xerxes..................................................................................................................................28
0.2.5.5 Persian ἐλευθερίη and the shadow of Cyrus ................................................................... 29
0.3CharacterizationintheHistoriesandthePersiankings......................................................31
0.4ComposingtheHistories–Herodotus’sources...................................................................33
0.4.1Oraltraditions.........................................................................................................................33
0.4.2 Achaemenidsources.............................................................................................................36
0.4.2.1SomeFeaturesofAchaemenidKingship.........................................................................36
0.4.2.2Advisers...............................................................................................................................39
0.4.2.3Violence,uncertainty,andfear..........................................................................................40
0.4.3 Aeschylus’Persae.................................................................................................................41
0.4.3.1Kingshipandimperialism..................................................................................................41
0.4.3.2Advisers...............................................................................................................................42
0.4.3.3Fear,uncertainty,andviolence.........................................................................................43
0.4.4Conclusion..............................................................................................................................43
0.5Macro-readingsoftheHistories..............................................................................................44
0.5.1‘Theriseandfallofrulers’....................................................................................................45
0.5.2Thedespotismtemplate........................................................................................................46
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0.5.3 Awarningtofifth-centuryAthens........................................................................................47
0.6Summaryofthethesis..............................................................................................................48
CHAPTER1–PERSIANKINGSANDIMPERIALEXPANSIONISM.............................................50
1.1Introduction...............................................................................................................................50
1.2.KingshipandimperialismintheHistories............................................................................50
1.2.1Non-Persiankingshipandimperialism................................................................................50
1.2.1.1CroesusandtheLydianempire........................................................................................51
1.2.1.2TheMedes’empire..............................................................................................................51
1.2.1.3Egypt....................................................................................................................................53
1.2.1.4Persian‘freedom’................................................................................................................54
1.2.2PersianimperialismintheHistories–non-Persianperspectives....................................54
1.2.3TheAthenianempire..............................................................................................................59
1.3Persiankingsasconsciousimperialists................................................................................59
1.3.1Kingandpeople.....................................................................................................................60
1.3.2 Expansionism as a Persian νόμος within the Histories.....................................................63
1.3.2.1.Cyrus...................................................................................................................................63
1.3.2.2Cambyses............................................................................................................................67
1.3.2.3Darius...................................................................................................................................69
1.3.2.4Xerxes..................................................................................................................................71
1.4Leadershipandexpansionism................................................................................................76
1.4.1 Aspectsofleadershipinthecontextofexpansionism......................................................77
1.4.1.1Strategicissuesandrisk....................................................................................................77
1.4.1.2Successionplanning..........................................................................................................78
1.4.2Stylesofleadershipinthecontextofexpansionism.........................................................79
1.4.2.1 Cyrus as πατήρ ................................................................................................................... 79
1.4.2.2 Cambyses as δεσπότης ..................................................................................................... 80
1.4.2.3 Darius as κάπηλος .............................................................................................................. 80
1.4.2.4Xerxes..................................................................................................................................81
1.5Conclusion.................................................................................................................................81
CHAPTER2–PERSIANKINGSANDTHEIRADVISERS.............................................................83
2.1Introduction...............................................................................................................................83
2.1.1Thenatureof‘advice’............................................................................................................83
2.1.2“Wise”advisersintheHistories..........................................................................................84
2.1.3.Thestatusofadvisers..........................................................................................................86
2.1.3.1Advisersfromtheethnicperspective...............................................................................87
2.1.3.2Thegenderofadvisers.......................................................................................................88
2.1.3.3Conclusion...........................................................................................................................89
2.2Stylesofleadershipinthecontextofadvisers.....................................................................90
2.2.1 Cyrus as πατήρ ...................................................................................................................... 91
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2.2.1.1Harpagus..............................................................................................................................92
2.2.1.2Croesus................................................................................................................................92
2.2.2 Cambyses as δεσπότης ........................................................................................................ 93
2.2.3 Darius as κάπηλος ................................................................................................................. 94
2.2.3.1Artabanus............................................................................................................................94
2.2.3.2Gobryas................................................................................................................................95
2.2.3.3Megabazus...........................................................................................................................95
2.2.3.4Atossa..................................................................................................................................96
2.2.3.5Conclusion...........................................................................................................................96
2.2.4Xerxes.....................................................................................................................................97
2.2.4.1Artabanus............................................................................................................................97
2.2.4.2Mardonius............................................................................................................................98
2.2.4.3Demaratus..........................................................................................................................100
2.2.4.4Artemisia............................................................................................................................102
2.2.4.5Conclusion.........................................................................................................................102
2.3Aspectsofleadershipinthecontextofadvisers................................................................105
2.3.1Strategicissues/risk............................................................................................................105
2.3.1.1Cyrus..................................................................................................................................105
2.3.1.2Cambyses..........................................................................................................................106
2.3.1.3Darius.................................................................................................................................106
2.3.1.4Xerxes................................................................................................................................106
2.3.2Successionplanning...........................................................................................................110
2.4Conclusion...............................................................................................................................111
CHAPTER3–LEADERSHIPSTYLESANDMODESOFBEHAVIOUR:VIOLENCE,
UNCERTAINTY,ANDFEAR..........................................................................................................113
3.1Introduction.............................................................................................................................113
3.2Modesofbehaviour................................................................................................................113
3.2.1Violence................................................................................................................................113
3.2.2Uncertainty...........................................................................................................................116
3.2.3Fearand Anxiety..................................................................................................................116
3.3Stylesofleadershipandmodesofbehaviour.....................................................................117
3.3.1Cyrus.....................................................................................................................................117
3.3.1.1Violence.............................................................................................................................117
3.3.1.2Uncertainty........................................................................................................................118
3.3.1.3Fearandanxiety................................................................................................................119
3.3.2Cambyses.............................................................................................................................120
3.3.2.1Violence.............................................................................................................................120
3.3.2.2Uncertainty........................................................................................................................121
3.3.2.3Fearandanxiety................................................................................................................121
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3.3.3Darius....................................................................................................................................122
3.3.3.1Violence.............................................................................................................................123
3.3.3.2Uncertainty........................................................................................................................124
3.3.3.3Fearandanxiety................................................................................................................126
3.3.4Xerxes...................................................................................................................................127
3.3.4.1Violence.............................................................................................................................127
3.3.4.2Uncertainty........................................................................................................................128
3.3.4.3Fearandanxiety................................................................................................................129
3.4Aspectsofleadershipandmodesofbehaviour..................................................................131
3.4.1Strategicissues/risk............................................................................................................131
3.4.2Successionplanning...........................................................................................................132
3.5Conclusion...............................................................................................................................133
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................134
4.1Introduction.............................................................................................................................134
4.2Thekings’stylesofleadership..............................................................................................134
4.2.1Cyrus.....................................................................................................................................134
4.2.2Cambyses.............................................................................................................................135
4.2.3Darius....................................................................................................................................135
4.2.4Xerxes...................................................................................................................................136
4.3ThePersiankings’leadershipstylesandmodernleadershiptheories............................136
4.3.1“Eventfulandevent-making”leadersandthePersiankings.........................................136
4.3.2CharismaticleadershipandthePersiankings.................................................................137
4.3.2.1Weber’stheoryofcharismaticleadership.....................................................................138
4.3.2.1.1 Apersonwithextraordinarygifts.................................................................................138
4.3.2.1.2Crisis...............................................................................................................................138
4.3.2.1.3Radicalsolutionanddivinepurpose...........................................................................139
4.3.2.1.4Committedfollowers.....................................................................................................139
4.3.2.1.5Continuingsuccess.......................................................................................................140
4.3.2.1.6ThePersiankingsascharismaticleaders..................................................................140
4.3.2.2Thedevelopedtheoryofcharismaticleadership..........................................................141
4.3.2.3Conclusion.........................................................................................................................141
4.3.3TransformationalleadershipandthePersiankings........................................................142
4.4Herodotusandleadership......................................................................................................143
BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................................................................146
Wordcount:80,000
5
Abstract
Herodotus’ portraits of the four Persian kings in the Histories present the reader with four very
distinct personalities. This offers an opportunity to compare them with each other as individuals,
rather than as linked parts of an overall Herodotean pattern (such as the rise and fall of empires),
and to use detailed differences between them at the micro-level as the basis for an analysis of
eachone’sownuniquestyleofleadership.
My analysis takes as its starting point the classification of three of the kings allegedly made by the
Persians themselves (see 3.89.3), focusing on all four kings’ styles as presented within the
contexts of Persian imperialism; advice and advisers; and three specific modes of behaviour
(violence, uncertainty and fear). Each king is shown consistently to exhibit his own style of
leadership – Cyrus as πατήρ, Cambyses as δεσπότης, Darius as κάπηλος, and Xerxes as a
consultative leader. My analysis uncovers Herodotus’ awareness of many aspects of the problem
of leadership in a monarchical system (such as the tension between offering sound advice and
deliveringmereflattery),aswellashisnon-judgmentalapproachtoeachindividualking'sstyle.
I go on to deploy a number of modern leadership theories to assess the extent to which they can
be fruitfully applied to the Persian kings’ styles of leadership, concluding that the breadth of
Herodotus’ accounts of the leadership styles exhibited by the Persian kings draws attention to the
shortcomings of such modern leadership theories in the inadequate assessment of the extent to
which the majority of leaders perform, or fail to do so; and further that such modern leadership
theories underline the exceptional quality of Cyrus’ leadership and his uniqueness among the
Persiankings,whileatthesametimesuggestingtheimmensedifficultyofsustainingamonarchical
systemintheabsenceofsuchqualityleadership.
Overall the analysis demonstrates how in the Histories Herodotus with subtlety and insight
presents the reader, in a detailed and analytical way, with an engaged portrayal of ideas about
leadershipanditspractice.
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Declaration
No portion of the work referred to in this thesis has been submitted in support of an application for
anotherdegreeorqualificationofthisoranyotheruniversityorotherinstituteoflearning.
7
CopyrightStatement
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ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be
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iii. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trademarks and other intellectual property
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oftherelevantIntellectualPropertyand/orReproductions.
iv. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation
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http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/DocInfo.aspx?DocID=487), in any relevant Thesis restriction
declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s regulations (see
http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/aboutus/regulations) and in The University’s Guidance for the
PresentationofTheses.
8
Acknowledgments
The University of Manchester has proved to be a most congenial, nurturing and stimulating
environment. Mygratitude to the facultyof Classics and Ancient History, and to all the people from
its support departments who have helped me enormously over the years, is unbounded. Without
exception they have been supportive, rigorous, and kind throughout my entire postgraduate life.
But Imustsingleoutfor particular thanks Dr PollyLow,myco-supervisor, Dr AndrewMorrison, my
panel member, and, above all, Dr Peter Liddel, my primary supervisor: without his regular
questioning and challenging, coupled with his constant and unstinting help and encouragement, I
would simply not have finished this thesis. Sincere gratitude is also owed to the examiners of the
thesis, Professor Stephen Toddand Professor Thomas Harrison,for stimulating metoevenfurther
thoughtaswellasfortheirexactitudeamdattentiontodetail:theirguidancehasbeeninvaluable.
Imust also paytribute to myfellow MA and PhD students at Manchester, past and present, whose
friendship I will value for the rest of my life. You welcomed me, a mature student, among you
withoutreservationandIhaveenjoyedandlearnedsomuchfrom youandyourcompany.
Finally,Ithank allmyfriendswhohavesupportedmethroughmylifeand,ofcourse,myfamily:my
parents, my brother and sister and my brother in law, as well as my step-children and my two
daughters – only rarely did you fail to resist the temptation to tell me I was mad! Above all, I thank
my wife, Catherine: you put the idea of postgraduate work in my head and, by your own
achievements, inspired me to think it could be done. By giving me absolute and unquestioning
support throughout the past five years, you have allowed me to survive the entire process,
culminatinginthisthesis.Myrespectforandgratitudetoyouareexceededonlybymylove.
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INTRODUCTION
0.1Introductoryremarks
In this thesis I examine Herodotus’ presentations of the Persian kings, Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius,
andXerxes,arguingthateachisdescribedwithareasonabledegreeofconsistencyasexhibitinga
particular style of leadership (see section 0.2.5 below). By focusing on the differentiation of the
individual Persian kings within the Histories at this micro-level,1 considering the presentations of
the four kings in specific contexts and analysing the differences between them, I assess the extent
towhichthePersiankingsshiftbetweenparticularstylesofleadership.2
I am encouraged by two passages in particular. At 3.89.3, Herodotus notes that the Persians
themselves devised appellations for their first three kings, thus demonstrating that Herodotus had
no difficulty with the idea of the Persian kings as exhibiting (even if only being considered to do so
by the Persians themselves) different styles of kingship regardless of their similarities – further
legitimising my interest in them as different from each other.3 In section 0.2.5.1-3 below I explain
how I use this classification as my starting point in considering the Persian kings’ styles of
leadership.
The second passage is a type of counter-factual account at 9.122.3-4, where the Persians are
presented as aiming to capitalise on their initial military success by taking up luxurious living. That
Herodotus concludes his work with a tale of a leader influencing his people not to undertake an
action that would have turned out very badly for them is, I contend, a strong indicator that, for
Herodotus, individual kings and leaders were capable of making a difference and influencing
events, an insight that encourages readings that focus on individuals’ actions on their own terms
(asopposedtosimplyidentifyinghowtheyformpartofanoverallpattern).
In section 0.2 I explain a number of aspects of leadership, which provide the framework for my
micro-level analysis: the elements of modern leadership theory that I will employ in my Conclusion
(section 0.2.1), leadership and the Histories (section 0.2.2), Persian kingship within the Histories
(section 0.2.3), aspects of Persian leadership in the Histories (section 0.2.4), and the Persian
kings’ individual styles of leadership – though I should make it clear at this point that I am not
1Pacescholarssuchas Grethleinemphasisingtheimportance, at the macro-level, of the‘riseandfall of empire’ pattern
(Grethlein(2010)172). Seesection0.5belowforafullerexplanationof what I meanbythemicro-level withexamples of
howmacroreadingscanfailtoshowthewholepicture.
2ForreasonsofspaceIamunabletoassessfullythePersiankingsagainstGreekindividuals(afullanalysisofXerxesin
contrastwiththeprimaryGreekleadersatSalamis,forinstance,wouldundoubtedlyproveveryilluminating).
3Bycontrast,Herodotus’‘translation’(seeScott(2005)349)ofthreePersiankings’namesintoGreekat6.98.3couldhave
beenfruitfullyemployedininterpretingassessments of Darius andXerxes (Artaxerxes has nodirect roleinthe Histories)
implicitinthemifhehadobservedinpassingthatthetranslationswereapt(ornot):butashedidnot,itisimpossibletoread
anythingintothem (thus renderingit unnecessaryformetoconsiderany textual issues thrownup bythepassage–see
Liberman(2016)194-5).
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