The Italian Army of World War I

50 Pages·9.549 MB·English

by  David Nicolle

The Italian ArlllY
of World War I
CONTENTS
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY & 2
FURTHER READING
ITALY AND THE GREAT WAR 3
• Political and strategic background- the Sanussi revolt in
Libya - Albania
DRDAVIDNICOllEwasborn
in1944.Heworked inthe CHRONOLOGY 5
BBCArabicservicebefore
going'backtoschool', gaining
THE CAMPAIGNS 8
anMAfromtheSchoolof
OrientalandAfricanStudies
• The Italian Frorn
and aPhDfrom Edinburgh
• Olher fronL\): \"'estern Front-Albania- Macedonia
University.Helatertaught
WorldandIslamicartand Libya - Palestine
architecturalhistoryat
YarmukUniversity,Jordan.He MOBILISATION, STRENGTH & CHARACTER 13
hasbeen aprolificauthorof
Ospreytitlesformanyyears. • Recruitmcnt and training- the voluntccr movcment
strengths- the rank and file - the officer corps
LINE INFANTRY 17
• Unit organisation- conditionsand morale- uniforms
insignia- protective& camounageclothing- helmet') &
armour- gasmasks
ELITE & SPECIALIST UNITS 21
• Granatieri - Bersaglicl-i - AJpini - volunteerorganisations
Arditi
WEAPONS 24
RAFFAELERUGGERI lives
• Rilles- machine guns- autonomous machine gun
andworksinBologna,Italy.
companies- hand grenades- mortars- name-throwers
Hehasa particularpersonal
interestinthe armiesand
forcesoftheOttoman CAVALRY & MECHANISED TROOPS 34
Empire,andhasillustrated
severaltitlesforOsprey
TECHNICAL TROOPS 36
onthissubject.
• Anillc,y
• Engineers
SUPPORT TROOPS 39
• Carabineri- Guardia eli Finanza- medical - chaplains
COLONIAL & NAVAL TROOPS 41
THE PLATES 43
INDEX 48
FirstpublishedinGreatBntalnin2003byOspreyPublishing Dedication
ElmsCourt.ChapelWay.Bailey.OxfordOX29LP.UnitedKingdom
Email:[email protected] ForFrederickWilliamNicolle,2338,
ACompany,5thBattalion,RoyalWarwickshireRegiment,
C2003OspreyPublishingltd. whowassentforofficertrainingbeforehecouldseeItaly
Allrightsre5ef'Jed.Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposeofprivatestudy.
research,cntlclsmorreView,aspermittedundertheCopyright,Designsand
Acknowledgements
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electrical,chemical.me<:hanical,optical.photocopying,recordingorotherwise, Theauthorwishestoacknowledgewithgratitudehisdebttothe
withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthecopyrightowner.EnqUiriesshould publishedworkofPhilipHaythornthwaite,whoseTheWorldWar
beaddressedtothePublishers. OneSourceBook(Arms&ArmourPress,1992)proVidedthebasis
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Select Bibliography & Further Reading
Thisisonlyasmallselectionoftherelevantbooks;alargenumber McEntee,GirardLindsley,Italy'sPartinWinningtheWorldWar
ofworkshavebeenpublishedinItalyoverIhepasl20years. (Princeton. 1934)
Bainville,J.,ItalyandtheWar(London, 1916) Mollo,Andrew,&PierreTurner,ArmyUniformsofWorldWarJ
Caracciolo,Mario(Ir. U,Mondadorij,ItalyintheWorldWar (Poole, 1977)
(Rome, 1936) Page.ThomasNelson,ItalyandtheWorldWar(London, 1921)
Cotillo,SalvatoreA,Italyduringthe WorldWar(Boston, 1922) Pieropan,Gianni, 1914-1918StoriadellaGrandeGuerra
Curami.A.,&AMassignani(oos.),L'ArtiglieriaItaliananellaGrande (Milan, 1988)
Guerra(Novala.1998) Pignato. N.,&F.Cappellano,GliAutovercolidaCombattimento
Davanzati. A.F.,TheWarofItaly(Varese, 1918) dell'EsercitoItaliano,vol.1,dalleoriginifinoal1939
FralelJi&Treves(eds.),TheWarinItaly, 9volscombined into2 (Aome, 2002)
n
(Rome,1916-1 Salandra.A.,ItalyandtheGreatWar(London. 1932)
Giachi,Antonio,TruppeColoniali!tafiane:Traditioni, Colorl, Schindler,J.R.,Isonzo: TheForgottenSacrificeoftheGreatWar
Medaglie(Florence, 197n (Westport,2001)
Haythornthwaite.PhilipJ.,TheWorldWarOneSourceBook Serra.Fabrizio.ItaliaeSenussia(Milan,1933)
(London, 1992) Seth,R"Caporetto, theScapegoatBattle(London, 1965)
Italy.EsercitoStatoMaggiore,UfficioStorico. L'Esercitoitaliano Thayer,A.J.,ItalyandtheGreatWar(Madison,1964)
nella 1guerramondiale:immagini(Rome. 1978) Trevelyan,G.M" Scenesfrom /faly'sWar(London, 1919)
Low,S.,ItalyintheWar(London. 1916) Villari, Luigi.TheWarontheItalianFront(London,1932)
Mantoan.N.• ArmiedEquipaggiamentidel/'esercitoitalianonella Viotti,A"CUniformeGrigio-Verde(1909-1918)(Rome,1994)
GrandeGuerra 1915-1918(Novale. 1999) Vitale, M.A.,L'lta/iainAfrica, Vol. 1:COperadeli'Esercito
Marzettl,P"LaGuerraItalo-Austriaca 1915-1918:uniformi, 1885/1943{Rome,1960}
distintivi, equipaggiamentoedarmi(Parma. 1998) Vivian, Herbert,ItalyatWar(London, 1917)
Mattalia.U.,CronachedellaGrandeGuerra 1915-/918:Altipiani,
Vafsugana. Pasubio, Isonzo, Piave(Valdagno.1992)
THE ITALIAN ARMY
OF WORLD WAR I
ITALY AND THE GREAT WAR
TALY'SSn"UATIONWASMORECQI\IPI.EX than thatoftheotherm£tiorpowers
in the Great War. The uniLCd Kingdom of Italy was a young COUlltl)',
which had only been proclaimed in February 1861. The head of
sl;llewas King VilLOrio-Emanuele JJJ(1869-1947), who had succeeded
to the throne in July 1900 after the assassination of his father
Umberto I. Despite considerable industlialisalion in the past 50
rears Italy remained an o\'erwhehningly agt;cultural country, and
over lhrcc-quartcrs of the rural population were landless peasants.
Under such circumstances Italy could not compete with the other
'Great Powers' in the anns race which dominated Europe pdor to the
outbreak of\"orld \\'ar I. Although the Italians had won Libya and the
Dodecanese islands ofGreece from Ottoman Turkey in 191I-J2, these
had been difficult campaigns which highlighted weaknesses in their
armed forces. \\'hile resistance to Italian occupation still continued in
the Libyan provincesofTripolitania, Cyrenaicaand Fall..an, Italy herself
faced politicallUrmoil \\Thich culminated in 'Red \Veek' inJune 1914.
GeneralCountLuigi Cadorna Since 1882 Ital)' had formed part ofa Tdple Alliance with Germany
(185G-1928), Chiefofthe and Italy's traditional enemy, the Ilapsburg Empire ofAusu-ia-Hungary.
General Staffand commander This alliance was, however, intended as a purely defensive relationship,
ofthe ItalianArmy (under
and Italy had made clear thatshe would ne\'ergo to waragainst Btitain.
the nominal authorityofKing
There was littlesU'lJrise when Italy refused tojoin her allies in what\\-as
Vittorio-Emanuele III)untillate
1917.ByOctober 1917Gen. widel)' seen as an aggressh·e war in August 1914. Indeed, there was a
Cadoma, an irascibleand growing feeling \\'ithin Italy, especiallyamongstanti-clerical and nation
intolerantleader,had 'tor alistic l1loderni~ers. that their country should ally herself with France
pedoed' 216generals, 255
and Bt;tain, since the defeat of Ausu-ia-Hungar)' might mean the lib
colonelsand355battalion
eration of /ta/ia Irrede11.la - those parts of the Hapsburg Ernpire which
commanderswhodisagreed
withordisappointed him. were largelyinhabited by Italians, namely the Trentino in the north and
Officerson hisstaffwho the LitLOnll (Godlia, TI-ieste and ncighbolll;ng regions) in the north
criticised Cadoma'smethods east. In these regionssupport for union with Italywasstrongestamongst
could even find themselves
the middle classand, between August 1914 and Italy'sdeclaration ofwar
imprisoned- these included
on the Central Powers lhe following i\Jay. many Italians fled from the
Col. GiulioDouhet, the air
warfaretheorist and prophet Trentino and the Lilloral to join the Italian Army. Meanwhile within
ofstrategicair power. Italy itself Peppino Garibaldi, grandson ofthe famolls patriotGiuseppe
In this portrait Gen. Cadorna Garibaldi, emerged as a leader or the Irredentist movement - namely
wearsthetraditional dark
those who wamed to fight for Italia I,.,.edpnta. Garibaldi led 4,000 Italian
blue uniform which was
voluntcers to enlist in the French Foreign Legion, and in winter
retained forceremonial wear
afterthe introductionoflow 1914/15 they fOllght well on the \Vestern Front. The sun;\'ors subse
visibilitygrey-greenuniforms quently relllnled tojoin thc Italian Army once Italy entered the war.1
following thelessonslearned
byobserversofthe Russo
1SeeMAA325.FrenchFOffHgfILfJgIOn1914-45.Afterthe.rincorporatlOrlll1totheAlp'andReBngades,some
JapaneseWarin 1904-05. membefsofthoselormatlOl'lsarereported10havecontmue<!10wearredshll'tSWIthlhetfunIforms,Inreference
10theIrac:lltlOOaldress01GIUseppeGaribaldfspalnOtvolunteers 3
Between August 1914 and ~Iay 1915 the Italian Anny prepared for
the coming conflict while simultaneously facing problcms in seveml
parts of Italy's Af'"ican empire. Things ,...ere quiet in Eriu"ea, where the
Italians had widespread support, though there was fear ofan Ethiopian
invasion. Italy also cultivated good relations with the ruler of the Arab
prminccofAsiron theothersideofthe Red Sea.To thesouth, in Italian
Somaliland, the Italian gO\'crnment had taken over from a pd\'i:ue
trading company in 1905 because the latter could not cope ,\~th a
resistance movement led by the Somali poet Muhammad Abd Allah
Hassan, known to his foes as the 'Mad Mullah'. In 1914 this leader and
his similarly misnamed 'dervish' followers inflicted a series of defeats
on the British in thc neighboudng colony of British Somalilancl. The
Imlians' biggest problem remained Libra. Ilcre resistancc was led bv,
though not limited to, the Sanussi Islamic sect. ByJuly 19]4 the Italians
controlled Tripoliwnia and had advanced to take Fazzan, but their
situation was morc difficult in Cyrenaica, close to the Sanussi spidLUal
and milil..'1rycentre ofAl-Khufrah. Turkey'S entry into the Crc£Il \'Var on
the side of the Central Powel'S rekindled Turkish suppOrt for the
Sanussi, and although this was initially dilL'ett:d against the French
and the British, neutral Italyalso faced an upsurge in hoslilities in Libva.
In North Africa the recentl), arrived Italian colonisers were in a weaker
position than the longer established French and British, and suffered
serious setbacks, By May 1915 Lhey were obliged to withdraw their
ganisons to the coast. and even parts oflhis \\'ere lost to the Sanussi or
other'rebels'"
Apart from a largelynaval g<:lITison on the Dodecanese lslands, Italy's
pre-war activities in the Balkans were diplomatic, Albania being the
main focus of interest. Albania had in faet becn declared an inde
pendent stale only in 1913 and was still in virtual anarchy. Marauding When ItalyenteredWorldWarI
Greeks caused mayhem in southern Albania, and in October 1914, with in May 1915most ofthe army
demonstrated the enthusiasm
the Great \\'ar occupying international atlention. reece occupied
seen inotherbelligerent
much of Albania. The Italians then LOok conu"ol of Sazan Island,
countries back inAugust
rollowed by the neighbouring pon orVlor;, in December. 1914,Heremen oftheSanita
Even before the war Italy had good relationswith the Entente Powers orMedicalCorps havepainted
ofFrance, Britain and Russia, and as early asJanuary 19-15 the Austrian the name'Trento' on the side
oftheirrailwaywa90n- this
government recciYcd reports that Italywaspreparing toenter thewaron
wasa region which Italy
lheir side. The Anglo-French amck on the Dardanelles (lhe Gallipoli
hopedto liberatefrom the
can1paign) further encouraged the Italians; and on 26 Apl"il 1915 Italy HapsburgEmpire,
signed the Treat)' of London, which promised
Italy sweeping territorial gains following an
Entcnte victory (promises which clashed with
those made to other countries. and which
included an agreement thal Albania "'oldd be
largely shared belween h.alr and Greece). On 3
~Iay 1915 Italy lerl the Triple Alliance, bUl lhere
was still resistance in the Italian parliament to
Italy entering the war. A change of government
was needed before the interventionists got their
way: but on 24 ~Iay 1915 Italy declared war on
Austria-Ilungary. on 21 August on Ouoman
Turkey, on 20 October on Bulg'"aria. and 011 28
4 Augusl 1916 011 Gcnnany.
23June-7July: First Battleofthe ]sonzojminor Italian
CHRONOLOGY
gains.
30june: LII))'o -Italian rolumnfails tobreakSil'gt!ofBll1W
~OLe: E\'ents on or mainh relc\~ant to the main Hhlid.
llalian/Au\tl'o-llungarian frolll aloe shown in bold 5juZl: Lill)a- Garrison ofBmw UnlidattemptsasortiebUI
type; Ihost., on Italr's secondary fronts, in ita/in; and i\ QUenuhelmed;generalItalian willulrawolfromsoulhern
n:lalcd ('vcnls, in normal Iype, Tl7polilania 10COrtstcompletedb)'Augusi.
18July-3 August: Second Battle of the [sonzoj minor
1914 Italian gains.
Ftbruar)': Libya - Italialls start oJfensivpagaiml mnaiTling 21 Aligusl: 11(16 dec/art's wor on Olloman Tllrkeyfor su~
San/lSsl ({{1l1!>s. portillgLibyan 'rebels'.
28 June: Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand assas 3-5October: Balkans-French and Britishdivision31and
sinated in Sar.tie\'o. at The3saloniki and move up Vardar I;ver 10 help
28Jul" LO August 4: declarations ofwar b\ Austria. Serbia.6OClOber:Austro-Cennan.Bulg-.u;an invasion
Hungar Russia, Ccnllany. Fr..lI1ce, Great Britain. ofSerbia; Franco-Blitish advance turned back.
AUKlIst-5'('/){"lIlh,'r: Lib)", - Ila/iall fJlUl/fivi' opprotions Ortolwr:LiIJ)'n-llaliarlgarrisonsin CyrP1wim(om/)lelewilh
againstSlln/l~~i. drawaltocoasi.
Augusl-OCLOI>eJ-: Balkan..,: - Greek." ocellp' sOllthern October-December: Balkam - Serbian ann\' I'etreats
AJbania. through Serbian-occupiecl nOrthern and central
26 August: Libya - Ilalilln coilimn de/paled by Sanuul at Albania.
Bi,.flt-Falia. 18 October-4 November: Third Baltle of the Isonzo;
Ortober: Balkans - Italy (Jrrll/Jif'~Albal/iall ultl11d ojSaum minor Italian g-dins.
0P/Jos;/p \701';>. then \'loriilself(Decl'1lllm"j. 20Oclober: lIalJ'dlxloreswaron Bulgan(l.
28S(JIJI'1nbt'r: Lill)a- antl-Ilalian risingill Fm.:um 11'Sldling Novt'mbel 1915-~larch 1916: Sallussi campaign
in an ItaliOll witJulmwal to 7hpohltl1lia by Feb1'l.wry against Ihe Brilish and Egyptians in Ef,7\'pl.
/9/5. 10 Novembel·-2 December: Fourth Battle of the
Ii-23 Novembel': East Arrica - ~h~or clash between [sonzoj minor Italian gains.
supponcl"'S or ~luhamll1adAbd Allah Ila5&"1n and [)erembP.'r: lJa/kam - 1311'tisll, Frencll and Iialion ships
the BI;tish in Briti...h Somaliland. Tpmion bPlwpt>11 evaclwt(' Sn-birm Armylrom Dunes 10 Crl'f'k islomi of
'Dervishes' ami Ila!ians in Italian Somalilmlll eJralates CO/fll. Iialian troopJlandill \'Ioriand~/arl/)lL{hi1/gbark
illio majordlL..IlfJ in 1915. Grf't'H oUIl/)a/ionfOTas in 'iOuthl'rn Albania.
December 191..J-Fcbruan 1915: Balkan') - Central
Albania falls to ncutr<t1ist 1~lal11ic forces. 1916
01
janllar)'-F'tbruay)': Lill)a - Comlal proj)!Rs Tripolitania
1915 fllld jabal Nail/soh ra/(l' 10 Italians: Sanussi ronlrol
9-11 March: Libya - ItaliallJ dis/mw Sonu.J5i JOIre in r"~tlirlf'(/Ioi'm/ofWadi7.LlIllUIlfI:ItaliflllsdtiM/Stmussi
southm, Tripolitania. column, IhbnIOI)'.
April: Partial Italian mobilisation. J1-15 March: fifth Battleof the Isonzo; minor Italian
2·/April: LIIl)·a - Largl' Italian rolllmll nlUlles!'fIsl to crush gains.
Sruzus.'ii uprising in .)lIrl rrgion, drjf'alnl 0' SfJllIUJi at May: E(I.~/ Af7i.ca - At/irma' fOl'med bf'iween Muhammad
Abll Zillaf01/ 28-29A/n;l. Abd Allah l-Ia.Jsfl1l (the 'Mad Mul/ahJ aud Empnvr
26April: halysignsTreatyofLondon. LijjasIlOft..llliopiainsupportof0110'11an Turks. agmnsl
4 May: Italy abrogates Triple Alliance wilh Austria BllIish, Ila/iruHandl?1>nrh. Ilatiam sl'11d rrmfolrt>mellts
Hungaryand Germany. 10Maswwa ill E,itrea; I.ijjaslfdeposed27Sej)tember; bllt
6 May-23jt/IIP: Libya - Iialia/J gam''iOIiS a/ Haull \Valid ell/ilwarrontilll/l'sin 1:.'Ihioj)ia.
andTarllllnahill J1;politalliabpfirgni:rdidallnllj)15fail. 14 May-I6June: Austrian offensive on Trentino front
22May: Official Italian mobilisation. takes Arsiero, Asiago, and retakes northern end of
23 May: halydeclareswaronAustria-HIUlgary. Lake Garda.
23-27 May: IFirst Offensive Bound' - Italians seize Mar Lill)'a-Italianam/)hiblOu...IW/(!il1galHasal-Mura)'Sah
Stelvio,TonaJe, Cuidriari, Ciau and Plocken Passes in Cyrnwim Yf'Cll/JlUrf>S al-l3arrli, lifter wltirh B,ilish
in the high Alps, plus seve.-dI salients beyond the Italian coillmn deslyo)'s Smlllssi Cllmp near Dama!l. 18
frontier. Mar Lib)a-Ilaliansrt>lokeZmL'a/'01I In 7hpobtama. 27
June: Balkans - .\lolllcnegro occupies Shkodt'r in \Ia\': Balkans - Creek Anny hands a strategic
northern Albania. Serbia occupies celllral Albania, frontier fortress to the Bulgal;ans.
Greece alreadyoccupiessouth.2
15-16June:Jralians take Monle Nero in night attack. 2ForatullefdescnptlonofallopeI"alJOnson1!'IeBalkanfronlanddetaIlsollhe
amuesInvolved.seeMAA356.AnnIesIf!theBalkans 1914-18 5
Ktagenfurt
•
Ljubljana-
Rijeka
........ Pre-war frontiers .........~- Front-linesinthe Trentino,with dates
• TakenbyItalians In1st to11th ------The Piave hne, October1918
battles of the Isonzo ......... Armistice line, 4 November1918
•__·····-Other Italicn advances in1915 x Strategic passes
17June-lJuly: Italiancounter-attackonTrentino front 17-20Sf'IJlnnbe,.: Ba/hans - Bulgarian C01Ultpr-ojfl'1lsivI'on
retakesArsiero and Asiago. J\/f/cedon;allfmnt dPjeatf'{J.
25july Libya - Start ojI1l'gotialions b"rW('('/l !ltd)', Britain 3 Oclobl',.-20 November: Bolhalls - 1::lIlf'ntfojjensilJf' /),.rall"
alldtheSal1/l.ssi. tlu' Bulgari(l/l hill' and falles i\!omufh: Iialians ;11
Allgust: Balkans - Bulgarians enter non.!\{'r!1 Greece, Albania ad1J(ll1re Nlstward} during NOTIember; huk III)
advance tOwards FIOI-ina and occupy K..'.I\'aIl3. Willi FW/lch af weslem md oji\!arer!onianjrol11 SOflfh
6--17 August: Sixth Battle of the Isollzo; substantial Wi'st of Loki' Prespa 10 foml a r011til1liOUS jront from
Italian gains includingGorizia. Adrialnr10Aegeall Sf'as.
August: Balkom - Italian 35th DivislOrJ arrnJPS m JO-I2 OClober: Eighth Baltle of the lsonzoj minor
77U'SSalonikitojoinE1ltl'1lll'forces0111MMoue/onionfront. Ilalian gairui,
24August:LilJ)'l1-Itabmu ",,'ak~Sunnanandal-Aja)lat011 1-14 NO\'cmber: Ninth Ballle of Lhe lsonzoj minor
coostofwestern Tripolitania. 1taliangains.
28A.ugust: Balkans - Ententeforces halt Bulgarian thnut 16 :'\'o\'cmber: Balkans - Official eSlablishmel1l of
Ult'stofThessalonikl. neutr<tl/one auoss nonhern Greece.
September. Balkans - 1',:ntl'1ltp cOllnter-atlack pstablishes a
front along River Stry-moll, Lake /Jojrtln oml S"'VltHl 1917
frontiertowardsFlonna. Janlllll)'-FpbrllwJ.' Libya-Italirulft!iJj)el'Sf'Saflussi!O,.ceson
29AuguSl: Italy declareswaron Germany. roast we~l of Tripoli, moki' amphibious landing at
St>ptnllber-Novembt>r.' Bfll.k{/,,~ - Italians in we~tprn Albanlo Zuwamh 10complete reronqw'sfo!wi'\·tfrn Tripolitania.
IJllsh CTl!fks out of so/(tlw,..,1 A/bania aud bdtilld (/ Februmy: Hajt AJriw - 'Df'1lJish' army a/lacks pro-Italian
'n('utmlzone: ofjiriat/)l(,slablished /6Novembl'r:e",lobliJIt SlIlfan Ulhmall ofObbia in Ifolian SomalilmuJ, bUI is
an IIQin Gjirokostel: dl'fra(edon 27FebrufH)"
10-18 September: Balkans - Enleute forces aUark on 17April: Libya- 'Modus VivendiofAkrama'agreedbe/wren
Maced011lan front, with dhwrsiol1ll1)' aftarks bJ Itahan Ita!itws, British andSmwss;. 'Rebels'il'l 7;ipoliltmia no
351h /Jiv at Lakl' Dojnm whil" Frnlrh, Snvirm and IOllgt'T rf'rognise Sal/lIssi IPadersliip and are not part) to
Russian divisions b,."ak Blligarimi right jlmlk to tak thi.5 tmf('.
H017no. 22-23 Mo).' Balkans - £ntf'nte offnl!Jlv(, across Croa ,ivn;
14-17 Seplember: Seventh Baltleofthe Isonzoj minor along short'S ofLake P,.,.sjw, III .\t')I1IOI1 valle)' and at
Italian gains. !....l,k"J)ojmn.
6
12May-5June:Tf'nlh Battleofthe150nzo;Italiang-dins.
JlIlIe: BalJwns - Italians /Jroclalmf"lImdf'IJI!tl(lenrt'for til'
/Jart ofAllxmwthat the') hoM.
9June: Italian offensh'e against Monte Ortigara on the
Trentino front.
10-12 June: Balkans - Emente gives pro-German
King Conslalltine of Greece ,Ill ultimatum: king
abdicates; nt'w Greek government declares sllppon
lor [ntenle on 2iJunc.
""\
EarlJJIlI),: EastAfrim- Pro-Ilalltw ann)' o/Sliltan ('I/tman
ofObbia attarks nf'rvisJU!s'.
3 .Julv: Balkans - Greece enters war on side of the ./ FAZZAN .,.,.
• :0":"
Entente. Heldby ~ "', ;.•..
17 August-12 September: Eleventh Battle of the ItoliansIn1916 2 ,/L~rA
150nzo;Austrians appeal to Germany for help. Italian ~"""
2i August-25 October: Balkan~ - hench ofTen~ive \ 1c9a1m5-p19a1Ig8ns V...'...4..i'rRiC.A',···::;..Nt;:~EG--:__-S..UO_A..N_.•'
around Pogradcc, south-west of LaJ...e Ohrid in
ea.'itern Albania. LIBYA DURING THE GREAT WAR
-I-II September: UIJ)'a - Ifaii(l!lJ rrlake JPlwra/ OtHf'\ in
Tril)o/it(wia.
24-25 October: Austro-German offensive at the Battle 19t8
of Caporello - Twelfth Battle of the Isollzo 4--5 May: Night raid by ItalianArdiliand Navydestroys
achieves breakthrough; Italian Army virtually electricalsub-stations behindAustrian lines.
coUapsesandbeginsgeneralretreat from the Isoozo JlUle: Austrian offensives defeated at Asiago, 15--16
and Carnia fronts. June, and along River Piavc, 15-24JWle.
31 October: Italiansattemptto form anewfronton the Juh: Gen. Diaz ~end~ Italian II COI-PS to serve on the
RiverTagliamento bUI fail; withdrawal continues. Western Front in France.
5 November: Italians make a stand on the River 25Jui): Lib.w1- .\lajorItalian bombardmrntofMlSratah.
Livenza while main defences are completed on the 27AUgl1St-25 October: Balkans- OfTensi\'c by Elllentc
River Piave. forces in Albania. staned by French di\·isions in
7-10 November: Italians withdraw to Piave Line. Gen. Kon;:c region.
DiazreplacesGen. CadornaasChiefoftheGeneral I"Sr'lJlember: 13a/kall~ - 1\lajoro//nulv€ bJ'ElIlmll'forason
Staffon 9 November. Maredon;tHlfirmt: Frenrh, Serhian and fla/itm divisions
12 November: Austrian attack via BeUwlo to il11ercept arhlrvebreakthroughbetweenAlbanianfrrmtieramiI?iver
the Italian retreat fails. \'ardar:
2) ,\eptember: Libya - Ila/ian coillmn from ZIl1l'arah
overnwsrebeLbluellt QlZjrTillt!.
ALBANIAN-MACEDONIAN FRONT 25-30 Seplrmhr,.: Bnlham - Fn!'1lcli and Italian dllllSlmlJ
hl'gm rapidadvancealmil{Iherour.seofRiwrCnw.
2 Ortobe,.: BalkallS - Ilalians in WfS/t>n1 Alhania advance
nort/t alongroasl, supportedIl)' Iialinu NllU)'.
5 Oc/ob('/":Lib)'a- Rebl4aUack011 Iialianposilionata/.-jfllnil
dejmled.
24 October: Start of Battle of Vittorio Veneto; Italian
and British forces advance across the River Piave.
27 October:Austria asks Italy for armistice.
6 October: Lib)'a-ltaJillllsdefi'lll rebflsatZanz.llr:
2 lovember: Hungarian government orders
I-Iwlgariall troops in Austro-Hwlgarian Army to lay
down theirarms.
GREECE 3 November: Austria signs armistice to take effect the
__,--, Frontiers in1914 next day; Italian amphibious landing in Trieste;
••••~.Front-line inlate1917 Balkans-Ilaliansaduauetnginto nOl"lIwnIAlbanialake
.·..•..·ltaliansectionsof the front Shkodirfivm J\/ollll'1legmns.
'.*'' Road from VIore toThessaloniki 4 November: Austrian armistice takes effect at J500
Main clashes on AIbanian front
hours.
~Italian campaigns inAlbania
7
After the war was won, haly recei\'cd less than she had been promised
in the Treaty of London, and much less than 1110st 1L:1lians regarded as
their country's due. The populations gaincd by the acquisition of the
LitLOral, Trentino and Aho Adige were virtually the same as Italy's
wartime casualties. About five and half million men had entered the
services and of these two-fifths became casualt.ies, about 689,000 being
killed and one million seriouslywounded. The economy had expanded,
but Italy was left with a massive international debt.. All of these l~lcLOrs
conu'ibllted to the rise ofFascism only a few years Imcr.
THE CAMPAIGNS
The Italian front
Fighting 011 the Italian front was more dominaLcd by gcographical con
ditions than an)' other theatre in Europe. In the mountains some
defensive positions and wire entanglements were situated on Alpine
peaks or followed high ridges and clirTtops LO creatc virtually unassailable
fortifications. The Austro-J-1ungarians had turned the Trentino inl.O one
\'ast fortress in which every major vantage point bristled with guns.
Between August 1914 and May 1915 Lhey had also carved elaborate
defences into the limestOne hills, plateauxand mountainsalongLhe River
(sanzo, often extending the networksofnatural caveswhich arc a featurc
of this landscape. Leanling from the lessons of the Western Front, the
Austro-Hungariansstrengthened the natural defcnsive features wit.h belLS
ofbarbed wire and mutually supporting blockhouses, all served by new
military roads and railways.
Meanwhile the Italian ChicI' of thc Ceneral St.aff, Cen. Luigi
Cadorna, drew up his essenually oilensivc strategy. Using thc bencfitof
interiorlinesofcommunic:Ilion, he ensured thatu·oopscould be mo\"ed
easily betwcen the TrCI1Lino and the Isonzo. Once war was declarcd,
Cadornaestablished hissupreme headquartersat Udine, less than 20km
from the frontier. The front from thc Stelvio Pass near lheSwiss border
to theAdriaticSeawasabotlt675km (419 rniles) long. Itwasdivided intO
three scctions: the Trentino in the west, which was pierced by the River
Adige; the Carnia in the centre, which was so mountainous that 1TI<:"U0r
offensi\'es were unrealistic; and the Ison.w in the east, which olTered
several strategic possibiliues. It was in the cast that Cadorna conccn~
tratcd Italian efforts.
In May 1915 t.he Ist and 4th A.rmies under Gens. Hrusmi and Nava
held the Trentino sector; Gen. Lequoi's 19 baualions of Alpini plus
cavaiJ)' and artillery held the Carnia line. The 2nd Army (Gen. Fl"ugoni
in Lhe north) and the 3rd Army (Gen. Zuccari, soon La be replaced b)'
the Duke of Aosta, in thc south) wcre ranged along the Isonzo front..
Three other army corps were hcld in rescrvc. Despite \'arious modifi
cations, this StruCture remained basicall)' intact for twO and a halfyears
until the batLle of Caporetto. In sorne sectors, most notably around
Caporeuo at the northern end of the 2nd Army's front, Italian dispo
sitions wcre very thinly spread. On the Isonzo front the bulk of Italian
strengLh was concentrated along the southern sector, where Cardona
repcatcdly attempted to achieve a breakthrough.
Gen. Cadorna's attacking strategy was unleashed with the 'First
8 Offcnsive Bound' of23-27 May -1915. This was a considerablc success,
with the lLaliansseizing,"iLaIobjecu,"cson all fronLS includingthes,,\-era1
Alpine passes and teHiLOI)' beyond. 8tlla hesiLall1 advance on the lower
Isonzo led LO the dismissal ofCen, Vercellana - the first of man)' such
sackings by Cadorna, who initially hoped LO break through La Ljubljana,
Vienna and BudapesL. This strategy resulted in the initial "Cl)' costlr
battles of the Isonzo. Failing to achie\'e his breakthrough, Cadorna
changed his objecu\'c but not hissu-ategy, nowaiming to liberateTI-ieste
rather than drh'e on thc enemy capiLals, This resulted in further bloody
battlesofthe Isonzo, no less than e1e\'en ofwhich were identified, e\'en
tually winning territory up to and in several sectors beyond the R..iver
Isonzo, including the cit)' ofGorilia,
Even though Cadonla soon realised that this was going to be a war
ofatu;tion, he conunued to ha\'e faith in massed arullery and massed
infantryatLacks, In 1917, before the disaster at CaporcllD, the Bdush
Gen, RoberLSon LOured the Italian defellces, which he described as old
fashioned and lackingdepth;co-ordination between artilleryand inf~m1l1'
wasinadequate,and therewas"L~ yetno usc ofthecreepingbarrage.while
communications \,'ere 'elementary' in Robertson's vie\,". (..-\'nothersenior
British officer. the ,'ery expel;enced Gen, Plumer, visited the front
afterC'..aporeLto; he toO was c,"iticaJ ofthe Imlian use ofartillery,)
AlCaporetto (ortheTwelfth Balticofthe Isonl.O) in October 1917,the
Austro-Ilungarians (with modest butdecisive Ccnnan sllppon) smashed
the 2nd Arm)' fronl, outOanking the 3rd Am1\' to the south and the
Although the Italian front ran
Carnia front to the north-east. The initial panic retreat ""(\05 halted and a from the Swissbordertothe
new Italian fl-ont was established along the River Pia,'c to the Ipine Adriatrlc coast, mostofits
foothills, where itjoineo the largely unchanged front which the Italians lengthwas so mountainous
maintained in the Trel1tino sector. Six French and fi\'e BI-itish cli,'isions thatmajormilitaryoperations
were impractical,Byfarthe
were scnt to Italy from the 'vVl'stcrn Front aftcr the Italialls haltcd the
mostintensivefighting was
enemy advance, but oncc lher had arrivcd the front was di,idcd into
concentrated along the lower
smallercorpssectors as follows: that ofVII Corps from the S\,"iss frontier course ofthe RiverIsonzoand
to Lake Carda: IC0'l)S between Arsiero and Asiago: VI Corps from there inrelatively lowmountains on
to tJle Ri\'er BrenLa (incorporating a British and a French di\ision); f\' eitherside.Largecampsand
dumps ofmenand material
C0'l)S from the Brenta almost to the River Pia,·e, where a shon front was
were often concentrated in
held by the French 12th Arm)' (incorporaLing Italian divisions); VIII
the narrowIsonzovalley,
C0'1)S wilh the i\lontello to their rear and the Pia\'c ahead; the British seen herefromtheair,
XIV Coq)s!1a,h Am,\' as
far as Ponte de Pia,'e
(incorporating Italian
di\'isions); and III COI'PS
(ex-3rd Army) from there
to the Ach;atic coast. The
IX and C:'wah"y Corps were
held in reserve,
The Italians were aware
of tJle shoncomings which
hadexposed them todefeat
at CaporetLO. and the first
hall' of 1918 was dedicated
to changing the arlTl\"s
Ouulloded tactics. Colonel
Pietro Badoglio (who rose
to greater prominence 9