The International standard Bible encyclopedia

760 Pages·2009·40.32 MB·English

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CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

CORNElL UNIVEHSiTV UBRABV

924 063 472 835

Cornell University
Library

The original of this book is in

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There are no known copyright restrictions in

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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924063472835

The International Standard

Bible Encyclopaedia

THE

International Standard

Bible Encyclopaedia

JAMES ORR, M.A., D.D., General Editor

JOHN
L. NUELSEN, D.D., LL.D.

EDGAR Y. MULLINS, D.D., LL.D.

ASSISTANT EDITORS

MORRIS 0. EVANS, D.D., Ph.D., Managing Editor

volume V

Copyright, 1915, by

The Howard-Severance Company

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'

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2821
THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA
Snuffers
Solemn

SOCKET, sok'et (H?
> 'edhen)
: The tabernacle

in the wilderness being constructed as a portable
building without permanent foundation, its stability
was attained by the use of "sockets" into which
the pillars and boards forming its walls were sunk.
The word therefore is used solely in relation to the
tabernacle,
except in one poetic passage (Cant 6

15), where the legs of the beloved are compared to
"pillars of marble set upon sockets of fine gold."
In all, the tabernacle with its court rested upon 165
bases or sockets, apportioned thus :
(1) silver sockets,

each a talent
(c 95
lbs.)
in weight
(Ex 38 27),

viz. 96 to support the 48 boards of the tabernacle
(Ex 26 19 ff)
;
4 for the pillars supporting the veil

(ver
32) = 100;
(2)
bronze
sockets,
weight
not

given, viz. 50 to support the 50 standards on which
were hung the curtains of the tabernacle on N., S.
and W. (27 10 ff), 10 to support 10 pillars on the E.
(vs 13 ff), and 5 to support the 5 pillars upholding
the screen at the tabernacle entrance (26 27) = 65.
The
site
for
the
tabernacle
being
chosen
and

leveled,
these
sockets would be
"laid" upon
it

(Ex 40
18), and the tenons of the boards, or pro-

jecting base of the pillar, inserted into holes made
for the purpose.
W. Shaw Caldecott

SOCOH, so'ko (nblTB
, nbte
, sokhoh, "branches"),

SOCO
('lailC,
sokho
[in Ch only];
^m-)(.i>,Sdchd,

most usual, but many forms in LXX and in AV:
Socoh, Shochoh, Shoco, Shocho)

:

(1) A city in the Shephelah of Judah mentioned

along with Jarmuth, AduUam, Azekah,
etc
(Josh

15 35);
the
Philis
"gathered together
at Socoh,

which belongeth to Judah, and encamped between
Socoh and Azekah"
(1 S 17
1);
it
is
mentioned

as one of the districts from which Solomon drew

his
supplies
(1 K 4
10,
AV
"Sochoh");
the

association of Socoh in this verse with Hepher
is

worth
noticing
in
connection
with
1 Ch 4 18

("Heber").
Soco (AV "Shoco") was one of the cities

fortified by Rehoboam
for the defence
of Judah

(2 Ch 11
7)
;
it was captured by the Philis in the

time of Ahaz (28
18).
The site is, without doubt,

Kh.
esh Shuweikeh {Shuweikeh
is a diminutive of

Shaukeh, "a thorn"), a rounded, elongated hilltop,
showing
clear traces
of
ancient
city
walls.
The

situation is one of considerable natural strength on
the south side of the Vale of Elah just where the
Wddy e? SAr makes a sweep to the W. and becomes
the Wddy
es Sunt.
Like
so many such
ancient

sites, the hill has very steep slopes on 3 sides
(S.,

W., and
N.),
and
is
isolated from the
ridge
of

higher ground to the E. by a narrow neck of lower
ground.
In the valley to the S.W.
is a plentiful

spring.
The site was known to Jerome in the 4th

cent.
He described
it as 8 or 9 Rom miles from

Eleutheropohs (Beit Jihrin) (PEF, III, 53,
125, Sh

XVII, BR,
II, 21).
The Sucathites
(1 Ch 2 55)

were probably inhabitants of Soco.

(2) A city of Judah in the S., associated
(Josh

15 48) with Shamir and Jattir.
This is doubtless

Kh. Shuweikeh, a large ruin occupying a low
hill,

10 miles S.W.
of Hebron;
there are many caves

and
rock-cut
cisterns
as
well
as drafted
stones.

Cheyne doubtfully locates the Socoh of
1 K 4 10

here.
See PEF, 404, 410, Sh XXV; BR,
I, 494.

E. W. G. Mastbrman

SOD, SODDEN, sod"n.
See Seethe.

SODA, so'da.
See Nitre.

SODERING,
sod'er-ing
(p^'l
,
debhek)
AV in

Isa 41
7, RV "soldering," of smith work.

SODI,
so'di Clio,
^odhi):
One
of
the
spies,

representing the tribe of Zebulun (Nu 13
10)

.

SODOM,sod'um(mO
, fdhom; S68o|jio,S(5(Zo?reo):

One of the 5 Cities of the Plain (q.v.), destroyed
by fire from heaven in the time of Abraham and
Lot
(Gen 19 24).
The
wickedness
of
the
city

became
proverbial.
The
sin
of sodomy was an

offence
against nature
frequently connected with

idolatrous
practices
(see
Rawlinson,
History
of

Phoenicia).
See Sodomite.
The fate
of Sodom

and Gomorrah
is used as a warning to those who

reject the gospel (Mt 10
15;
11 24;
2 Pet 2 6;

Jude ver 7).
The word
is used in a typical sense

in Rev 11
8.
Sodom was probably located in a

plain S. of the Dead Sea, now covered with water.
The name
is
still preserved in Jebel Usdum (Mt.

Sodom).
See Arabah;
Cities
of
the
Plain;

Dead Sea.

Literature.—Dillmann.
Genesis,
111 f ;
Robinson,

BE,
II, 187 ft;
G. A. Smith, HGHL, 505 ff;
Blancken-

lioru, ZDPV, XIX,
1896,
53 £E;
Baedeker-Socin,
Pal,

143;
Buhl, GAP, 117, 271, 274.

George Frederick Wright

SODOM, VINE OF (n^O~"iSa
, gephen fdhoni)

:

"For their vine is of the vine of Sodom,
And of the fields of Gomorrah;
Their grapes are grapes of gall.
Their clusters are bitter"
(Dt 32 32).

This must be distinguished from the "Apples
of

Sodom"
(q.v.), described by Jos {BJ, IV,
viii, 4),

which appear to have been an actual species of fruit,
probably either the colocynth or the fruit of the
Usher
tree, Calotropis
procera.
It would appear,

however, from the above, the only passage referring
to the Vine of Sodom, that this expression is meta-
phorical and does not refer to any particular plant.

E. W. G. Masterman

SODOMITE,
sod'om-it
(11J~J5,
iadhesh,
fern.

iTttJni?
, k'dheshah) : Kadhesh denotes properly a male

temple prostitute, one of the class attached to cer-
tain
sanctuaries
of heathen
deities, and
"conse-

crated" to the impure rites of their worship.
Such

gross and degrading practices in Jeh's land could
only be construed as a flagrant outrage;
and any

association
of these with His pure worship was

abhorrent (Dt 23
17f).
The presence of Sodomites

is noted as a mark of degeneracy in Rehoboam's
time
(1 K 14 24).
Asa
endeavored
to
get
rid

of them
(15
12),
and Jehoshaphat routed them

out
(22
46).
Subsequent corruptions opened the

way for their return, and Josiah had to break down
their houses which were actually "in the house of
the
Lord"
(2 K 23
7).
The
fem.
k'dheshah
is

tr''
"prostitute"
in Gen 38 21.22;
Hos 4
14;
in

Dt 23 17
"prostitute" (AVm "sodomitess," RVm

transliterates).
The
Eng.
word
is,
of
course,

derived from Sodom, the inhabitants of which were
in evil repute for unnatural vice.
W. Ewing

SODOMITISH,
sod'om-It-ish, SEA.
See Dead

Sea.

SODOMY,
sod'o-mi.
See
Sodom;
Sodomite;

Crimes;
Punishments.

SOJOURNER,
soj'er-ner,
so'jflr-ner,
suj'er-ngr.

See Stranger and Sojourner.

SOLDERING, sod'er-ing.
See Soderinq.

SOLDIER,
sol'jer.
See Army.

SOLEMN,
sol'em, SOLEMNITY,
s6-lem'ni-ti:

The word "solemn" had
(1)
at first the meaning

"once
in the year," through
its derivation from

Lat
sollus, "whole," annus, "year."
As, however,

a regular annual occurrence
is usually one of par-

ticular importance, the word took on (2) the mean-

Solemn Assembly
Solomon
THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA
2822

ing "ceremonious."
From
this
is derived
(3) the

usual modem
force
of
"grave"
in
opposition
to

"joyous."
This last meaning
is not in Bib. Eng.,

and the meanings of "solemn" in EV are either (1)
or
(2).
Nor
is there any certain case of
(1), for

the word is always a gloss in EV and, although fre-
quently introduced in references to annual events
(Lev 23 36, etc), it is even more often used where
"annual"
is
foreign to the passage
(2 K 10 20;

Ps 92 3, etc).
The use of the word in AV is unsys-

tematic.
It is always (except in Jer 9 2) found in

conjunction with "assembly
when (10 t) the latter

word represents 'agarah QHgereth) (Lev 23 36, etc)
(retained by RV with m "closing festival," Lev 23
36; 2 Ch 7 9; Neh 8
18).
AV uses "solemnity"

or "solemn day,"
"feast,"
etc,
17
t for the very

common
word
mo'edh
("appointed"
time,
etc;

see Feast).

EVs
treatment
of
these
passages
defies
analysis.

"Solemnity"
is
kept
iu
Isa 33 20;
Bzk 46
11,
and

"solemn"
in Lam
(4
t);
Hos
(3
t);
Zepli 3
18.
In

Ezk 36 38; 45
17; 46 9 it is replaced by
'appointed,"

elsewhere
(and
for
mo'ddhoth,
2 Ch 8
13)
by
"set."

The
margins
further
complicate
the
renderings.
AV

also uses "solemn" with
fagh,
"feast," 4
t, and with

haghagh,
"keep
a
feast,"
in Dt 16
15.
The word
is

dropped by EV, except ERV In Ps 81
3.
Finally, AV

and EV have "solemn sound" for higgdySn, in Ps 92
3.

The context, however, demands "resoimding melody."
And 11 t EV has introduced "solemn" to represent the
Intensive in the form sAa6ba(A s?»ai)6a(Aore (Ex 16
23, etc),

where AV has simply "sabbath" or "sabbath of rest."
EV here has imitated the adverbial "solemnly" iu the
similar intensified expressions in Gen 43 3;
1 S 8
9.

RV Apoc
translates en hemerais kairoil, "in the

days of the season" (Bar 1
14), by "on the days of

the solemn assembly" (AV "solemn days"), and
both AV and RV have "solemn feast days" for dies

festos (2 Esd 131).
Otherwise AV's use of "solemn"

is dropped by RV.
Burton Scott Easton

SOLEMN ASSEMBLY (MEETING)
See Con-

geegation; Fasts and Feasts;
Solemn, Solem-

SOLOMON,
sol'o-mun
(nb'bip, sMomoh; NT

2oXo|ju&v, Solomon)

:

I.
Eahlt Life

1. Name and Meaning
2. Sources
3. Birth and Upbringing
4. His Accession
5. Closing Days of David

II.
Reign of Solomon

1. His Vision
2. His Policy
3.
Its Results

4.
Alliance with Tyre

5.
Alliance with Egypt

6. Domestic Troubles

III.
His Buildings
1. The Temple
2. The Palace
3. Other Buildings
4. The Corbie

IV.
Hia Chabacter
1. Personal Qualities
2. His Wisdom
3. His Learning
4. Trade and Commerce
5.
Officers of State

6. Wives
7. Eevenues
8. Literary Works

Literature

/. Early Life.—Solomon was the son of David and

Bath-sheba, and became the 3d king of Israel.
He

was so named by his mother
(2 S 12

1. Name
24, U^e; see Text), but by the prophet

and Mean-
Nathan,
or by_ his father
(Vulg), he

ing
was called Jedidiah—"loved
of jeh."

The name "Solomon" is derived from

the root meaning "to be quiet" or "peaceful," and

S. was certainly the least warlike of
all the kings

of Israel or Judah, and in that respect a remarkable
contrast to his father
(so
1 Ch 22
9).
Hia name

in Heb compares with Irenaeus in Gr, Friedrich in

Ger., and SeUm in Arab.; but it has been suggested
that the name should be pronounced shillUmah, from
the word denoting
"compensation,"
Bath-sheba's

second son being given in compensation for the loss

of the first (but see 3, below).

The oldest sources for the biography of
S.
are

doubtless the "Annals of Solomon"
referred to in

1 K 11 41, the "history of Nathan the

2. Sources
prophet,"
the
"prophecy
of
Ahijah

the
Shilonite"
and
the
"visions
of

Iddo the seer," mentioned in 2 Ch 9 29, all which
may be merely the relative sections of the great
book of the "Annals of the Kings" from which our
Books of K and Ch are both derived.
These ancient

works are, of course, lost to us save in so far as they
have been embodied in the OT narrative.
There

the life of S. is contained in 2 S 12 24 f ;
1 K 1-11;

1 Ch 22—2 Ch
9.
Of these
sources 2 S 12 24 f

and 1 K
1, 2 are much the oldest and in fact form

part of one document, 2 S 9-20;
1 K
1, 2 dealing

with the domestic affairs of David, which may well
be contemporary with the events it describes.
The

date of the composition of the Boolis of Ch is about
300 BC—700 years after the time of S.—and the
date of the Books of K, as a completed work, must,

of
course,
be
later
than
the
exile.
Nothing
of

importance
is
gained
from
citations
from
early

historians in Jos and later writers.
Far and away

the best source for, at least, the inner hfe of S. would
be the writings ascribed to him in the OT, could we
be sure that these were genuine (see below).

The children of David by Bath-sheba are given in

1 Ch 3 5 as Shimea, Shobab, Nathan and Solomon.

Cf
also 2 S 5
14;
1 Ch 14
4, where

3. Birth
the same persons evidently are named,

and Up-
It would thus appear that S. was the

bringing
4th
son
of
Bath-sheba,
supposing

Shimea
to
be
the
child
that
died.

Otherwise
S. would
be
the 5th
son.
There
are

therefore some
events omitted
in 2 S 12 24 f, or

else the names Shobab and Nathan are remains of
some clause which has been
lost, and not proper

names.
Like the heir apparent of a Turkish sultan,

S. seems to have spent his best years in the seclusion
of the harem.
There he was doubtless more influ-

enced by his mother than by his father, and in close
intimacy with his mother was the prophet Nathan,
who had given him his by-name of fortunate import

(2 S 12 25).

It was not until David lay on his deathbed that

S.
left the women's quarters and made his appear-

ance
in
pubhc.
That he had
been

4. His Ac-
selected by David, as the son
of the

cession
favorite
wife,
to succeed him,
is pre-

supposed
in
the
instructions
which

he received from his father regarding the building
of the Temple.
But as soon as it appeared that the

life of David was nearing its end, it became evident
that S. was not to have a "walk over."
He found

a rival in Adonijah the son of Haggith, who was
apparently the eldest surviving son of
his
father,

and who had the
support
of
Joab, by
far
the

strongest man of
all,
of Abiathar, the leading,
if

not the favorite, priest (cf 2 S 15 24 ff), and of the
princes of the royal house.
S., on the other hand,

had the support of his mother Bath-sheba, David's
favorite wife, of Nathan the court prophet, of Zadok
who had eclipsed Abiathar, of Benaiah, the son of a
priest, but one of the three bravest of David's sol-
diers, and captain of the bodyguard of Cherethites
and Pelethites, and of the principal soldiers.
It is

esp. noted that Shimei and Hushai (so Jos) took no
active part at any rate with Adonijah
(1 K
1
8).
The
conspiracy came
to
nothing,
for,
before
it

developed, S. was anointed at Gibeon (not Gihon,
1 K 1 33.38.45), and entered Jerus as king.

2823
THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA
Solemn Assembly
Solomon

The age of S. at his accession is unknown.
The

expression in 1 K 3 7 is not, of course, to be taken

literally
(otherwise Ant, VIII,
vii, 8).

5. Closing
His reign opened, hke that of many an

Days of
oriental monarch, with a settlement in

David
blood of the accounts of the previous
reign.
Joab,
David's
nephew,
who

had brought the house within the bounds of blood
revenge, was executed.
Adonijah, as soon as his

father had breathed
his
last, was on a nominal

charge put to death.
Abiathar was relegated to his

home at Anathoth
(1 K 2 26).
Conditions were

imposed on Shimei which he failed to keep and so
forfeited
his
hfe
(2 36 ff).
These_ steps
having

been taken, S. began his reign, as it were, with a
clean slate.

//. Reign of Solomon.—It was apparently at the

very beginning of his reign that S. made his famous

choice
of
a
"hearing
heart,"
i.e.
an

1. His
obedient heart, in preference to riches

Vision
or long life.
The vision took place at

Gibeon
(2 Ch 1
7, but
in
1 K 3 4 f

the ancient versions read "upon the altar that was

in Gibeon.
And the Lord appeared," etc) .
The life

of S. was a curious commentary on his early resolu-

tion.
One of the first acts of his reign was appar-

ently, in the style of the true oriental monarch,
to build himself a new palace, that of his father
being inadequate for his requirements.
In regard

to
poUtics,
however,
the
events
of
Solomon's

reign may be regarded as an endorsement of his
choice.
Under him alone was the kingdom of Israel

a
great
world-power,
fit
almost
to
rank
beside

Assyria and Egypt.
Never again were the bounds

of Israel so wide; never again were north and south
united in one great nation.
There is no doubt that

the credit of this result is due to the wisdom of S.

S. was by nature an unwarUke person, and his

whole pohcy was
in the
direction of peace.
He

disbanded the above-mentioned foreign

2. His
legion, the Cherethites and Pelethites,

Policy
who had done such good
service
as

bodyguard
to
his
father.
AU
his

officers seem to have been mediocre persons who
would not be likely to force his hand, as Joab had
done that of David
(2 S 3 39).
Even the
forti-

fication of Jerus and of the frontier towns was under-
taken with a view to
repel
attack,
not
for the

purposes of offence.
S.
did, no doubt, strengthen

the army, esp. the cavalry arm (1 K 4 26;
10 26),

but he never made any use of this, and perhaps it

existed largely on paper.
At any rate S. seems to

have been rather a breeder of and dealer in horse-

flesh than a soldier.
He appears also to have had

a fine collection of armor (10 25), but much of
it

was made of gold
(10 16 f) and was intended for

show,
not
for
use.
Both
in
his
reputation
for

wisdom and in his aversion to war S. bears a striking
resemblance
to King James VI
of Scotland and

I of England, as depicted by the hand of Sir Walter

Scott.
It was fortunate
for him
that both
the

neighboring great powers were for the time in a
decadent state, otherwise the history of the kingdom

of Israel would have ended almost before
it had

begun.
On the other hand,
it has been remarked

that if S. had had anything like the miUtary genius

of David and
his enthusiasm
for the reUgion
of

Jeh, he might have extended the arms of Israel from

i the Nile to the Tigris and anticipated the advent

of Islam.
But his whole idea was to secure him-

self in peace, to amass wealth and indulge his love

of grandeur with more than oriental splendor.

S.,
in
fact, was living on the achievements and

reputation
of
his
fatherj who
laid
the
basis
of

security and peace on which the commercial genius

of S. could raise the magnificent structure which he

did.
But he took the clay from the foundations in

order to build the walls.
The Hebrews were a mili-

tary people and
in
that
consisted
their
hfe.
S.

withdrew
their
energies
from
their

3. Its
natural bent and turned them to corn-

Results
merce, for which they were not yet ripe.
Their soul rebelled under the irksome

drudgery of an industry of which they did not reap
the
fruits.
S. had in
fact reduced a free people

to slavery, and concentrated the wealth of the whole
country in the capital.
As soon as he was out of the

way,
his country subjects threw off the yoke and

laid claim to their ancient freedom.
His son found

himself left with the city and a territory as small as
an English county.

Solomon's chief ally was Hiram, the king of Tyre,

probably the friend and ally of David, who is to be

distinguished from Hiram the artificer

4. Alliance
of
1 K 7
13ff.
Hiram the king en-

with Tyre
tered into a treaty with S. which was
to
the
advantage
of
both
parties.

Hiram suppUed S. with cedar and pine wood from
Lebanon,
as well as with
skilled
artisans for
his

building.
Tyrian sailors were also drafted into the

ships
of
S.,
the Hebrews not being used
to the

sea (1 K 9 26 f), besides which Phoen ships sailed
along with those of S.
The advantages which Hi-

ram received in return were that the Red Sea was
open to his merchantmen, and he also received large
supplies
of com and
oil from the land of
Israel

(1 K 5 11
corrected by LXX and
2 Ch 2
10).

At
the
conclusion
of the
building
of the palace

and Temple, which occupied 20 years, S. presented
Hiram with 20 villages
(1 K 9
11;
the
converse,

2 Ch 8
2), and Hiram made S. a return present of

gold
(1 K 9
14;
omitted in 2 Ch).

Second
to Hiram was the Pharaoh
of Egypt,

whose daughter S. married, receiving as her dower

the town of Gezer
(1 K 9
16).
This

5. Alliance
Pharaoh
is
not named
in
the
OT.

with Egypt
This aUiance with Egypt
led
to the

introduction of horses into
Israel (10

28 f), though David had already made a beginning
on a small scale
(2 S 8
4).
Both these aUiances

lasted throughout the reign.
There is no mention

of an alUance with the eastern power, which was
then in a decadent state.

It was probably nearer the beginning than the end

of Solomon's reign that political trouble broke out

within the realm.
When David had

6. Domestic annexed the territory of the Edomites
Troubles
at the cost of the butchery of the male
population
(cf 2 S 8 14; Ps 60, title)

one
of the young
princes
of
the
reigning house

effected his escape, and sought and found an asylum
in Egypt, where he rose to occupy a high station.
No sooner had he heard of the death of David and
Joab than he returned to his native country and
there
stirred up
disaffections
against
S.
(1 K 11

14 ff; see Hadad), without, however, restoring inde-
pendence to Edom (1 K 9 26).
A second occasion

of disaffection arose through a prophet having fore-
told that the successor of S. would have one of the

Israelite tribes only and that the other ten
clans

would be under Solomon's master of works whom
he had set over them.
This officer also took refuge

in Egypt and was
protected by Shishak.
He re-

mained there until the death of S.
(1 K 11 26 ff).

A third adversary was Rezon who had fled from his
master the king of Zobah
(1 K 11 23), and who

established
himself
at Damascus and
founded a

dynasty which was long a thorn in the side of Israel.
These domestic troubles are regarded as a conse-
quence of the falling away of S. from the path of

rectitude, but this seems tobe but a kind of antic-
ipative consequence, that
is,
if
it was not
till the

end of his reign that S.
fell into idolatry and poly-

theism (1 K 11 4).

Solomon
S.'s Servants
THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA
2824

/// His
Buildings.—The
great
undertaking
of

the reign of S. was, of course, The Temple
(q.v.),

which was at first probably considered

1. The
as the Chapel Royal and an adjunct

Temple
of the palace.
The Temple was begun

iQ the 4th year of the reign and finished

in the
11th,
the work of the building occupying

7J years (1 K 6; 7 13 fl).
The delay in beginning

is remarkable, if the material were all ready to hand

(1 Ch 22).
Worship there was inaugurated with

fitting ceremony and prayers (1 K
8).

To S.J however, his own palace was perhaps a more

interesting undertaking.
It at any rate occupied

more time,
in fact
13 years
(1 K 7

2. The
1-12;
9
10;
2 Ch 8
1), the time of

Palace
building
both
palace
and
Temple

being 20 years.
Possibly the building

of the palace occupied the first four years of the
reign and was then intermitted and resumed after
the completion of the Temple;
but of this there is

no indication in the text.
It was called the House

of the Forest of Lebanon, from the fact that it was
lined with cedar wood
(1 K 7
2).
A description

^^of it is given in 1 K 7
1-12.

S. also rebuilt the wall of the city and the citadel

(see
Jerusalem;
Millo).
He
Ukewise
erected

castles at the vulnerable points of the

3. Other
frontiers—Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer

Buildings
(1 K 9
15),
lower
Beth-horon
and

Baalath
(q.v.).
According
to
the

K^e of 1 K 9 18 and the ancient VSS as well as
2 Ch 8
4, he was the founder of Tadmor (Palmyra)

;

but the Knhibh of 1 K 9 18 reads Ta;mar (cf Ezk
47
19).
Some of the remains of buildings recently

discovered at Megiddo and Gezer may go back to
the time of S.

S. could not have built on the scale he did with the

resources ordinarily at the command of a free ruler.

Accordingly we find that one of the

4. The
institutions fostered by him was the

Corvee
corvee, or forced labor. No doubt some-
thing of the kind always had existed

(Josh 9 21) and stOI exists in all despotic govern-
ments.
Thus the people of a village will be called

on to repair the neighboring roads, esp. when the
Pasha
is making a progress in the neighborhood.

But
S. made the thing permanent and
national

(1 K 6 13-15;
9
15).
The immediate purpose of

the levy was to supply
laborers
for work
in the

Lebanon in connection with his building operations.
Thus 30,000 men were raised and drafted, 10,000 at
a time, to the Lebanon, where they remained for a
month, thus having two months out of every three
at home.
But even when the immediate cause had

ceased, the practice once introduced was kept up,
and it became one of the chief grievances which led

to the dismemberment of the kingdom (1 K 12
18,

Adoram = Adonn-am;
cf 2 S 20 24),
for
hitherto

the corvee had been confined to foreign slaves taken

in war
(1 K 9 21).
It
is
said the higher posts

were
reserved
for
Israehtes,
the
laborers
being

foreigners
(9 22),
that
is,
the Israehtes acted as

foremen.
Some of the foreign slaves seem to have

formed
a
guild
in
connection
with
the Temple

which lasted down to the time of the exile (Ezr
2 55-57; Neh 7 57-59;
see Nbthinim).

IV. His Character.—In S. we have the type of a

Turkish sultan, rather than a king of Israel.
The

Heb
kings,
whether
of
Israel
or

1. Personal Judah, were, in theory at least, elect-

Qualities
ive monarchs like the kings of Poland.

If one happened to be a strong ruler,

he managed to
establish
his family,
it might be,

for three or even four generations.
In the case of

the Judaean dynasty the personality of the
first

king made such a deep impression upon the heart of
the people that the question of a change of dynasty

there never became pressing.
But S. would prob-

ably have usurped the crown if he had not inherited

it, and once on the throne he became a thorough-
going despot.
AH poMtical power was taken out

of the hands of the sheiks, although outward respect
was still paid to them (1 K 8
1), and placed in the

hands of officers who were simply creatures of S.
The resources of the nation were expended, not on
works of pubhc utiKty, but on the personal aggran-
dizement of
the monarch
(1 K 10 18 ff).
In the

means he took to gratify his passions he showed him-

self to be little better than a savage, and if he did
not commit such
great crimes as David,
it was

perhaps because he had no
occasion,
or because

he employed greater cimning in working out
his

ends.

The wisdom for which S. is so celebrated was not

of a very high order;
it was nothing more than

practical shrewdness, or knowledge of

2. Wisdom
the world and of human nature.
The

common example of it is that given in

1 K 3 16 ff, to which there are innumerable paral-

lels in Indian, Gr and other hteratures.
The same

worldly wisdom Mes at the back of the Book of
Prov, and there
is no reason why a collection of

these should not have been made by S., just as it is
more hkely that he was a composer of verses than
that he was not
(1 K 4 32)
.
The statement that

he had breadth of heart (4 29) indicates that there
was nothing known which did not come within his
ken.

The word "wisdom," however,
is used
also
in

another connection, namely, in the sense of theo-

retical knowledge
or book
learning,

3. Leaming esp. in the department of natural his-

tory.
It is not to be supposed that S.

had any scientific knowledge of botany or zoology,
but he may have collected the facts of observation,
a task in which the Oriental, who cannot generahze,

excels.
The wisdom and understanding (1 K 4 29)

for which S. was famous would consist largely in

stories about beasts and trees hke the well-known
Fables of Pilpai.
They included also the "wisdom"

for which Egypt was famous (4 30), that is, occult

science.
It results from this last statement that S.

appears in post-Bib. and Arabian ht. as a magician.

S. was very literally a merchant prince.
He not

only
encouraged
and
protected
commerce,
but

engaged in it himseK.
He was in fact

4. Trade
the predominant, if not sole, partner in

and Com-
a
great
trading
concern, which was

merce
nothing less than the Israehte nation.
One of his enterprises was the horse

trade with Egypt.
His agents bought up horses

which were again sold to the kings of the Hittites
and
the Aramaeans.
The
prices paid
are men-

tioned (1 K 10 29).
The best of these S. no doubt

retained for his own cavalry (1 K 10 26).
Another

commodity imported from that country was hnen
yarn
(1 K 10 28 AV).
The navy which
S.
built

at the head of the GuK of Akaba was not at aU for
military, but purely commercial ends.
They were

ships of Tarshish, that is, merchant ships, not ships
sailing to Tarshish, as 2 Ch 9 21.
They traded to

Ophir
(q.v.), from which they brought gold, silver,

ivory, apes and peacocks, the round voyage lasting
3 years
(1 K 9 26ff;
10 22).
Special mention
is

made of "ahnug" (10 11) or "algum" (2 Ch 9 10 f)
trees (q.v.) .
The visit of the Queen of Sheba would

Eoint to the overland caravan routes from the Yemen

eing then open
(1 K 10
15).
What with direct

imports and the result of
sales,
silver and cedar

wood became very plentiful in the capital (10 27).

The hst of Solomon's ofiioers of state is given in

1 K 4 2 if.
These included a priest, two secretaries,

a
recorder, a
commander-in-chief,
a
chief
com-

missariat officer, a chief shepherd
(if we may read

2825
THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA
Solomon
S.'s Servants

ro'^eh for re'eh), a master of the household, and the
head of the
corvee.
The
list should be compared

with those of David's officers
(2 S 8

6. Officers
16 ff;
20 23 ff).
There
is much
re-

of State
semblance,
but we
can
see that the

machine of state was becoming more

complicated.
The bodyguard
of
foreign
merce-

naries was abohshed and the captain Benaiah pro-
moted
to
be
commander-in-chief.
Two
scribes

were required instead of one.
Twelve commissariat

officers
were
appointed
whose
duty
it
was
to

forward from
their
districts the supplies
for the

royal household and
stables.
The
list
of
these

officials, a very curious one, is given in
1 K 4 7 ff

.

It is to be noted that the 12 districts into which
the country was divided did not coincide with the

territories of the 12
tribes.
It may be remarked

that S. seems as far as possible to have retained the
old servants of his father.
It wiU be noticed also

that in all the lists there is mention of more than
one priest.
These "priests" retained some of their

original functions, since they acted as prognosticators
and diviners.

Solomon's
principal
wife
was
naturally
the

daughter of Pharaoh;
it was for her that his palace

was
built
(1 K 3
1;
7 8;
9
16.24).

6. Wives
But in addition to her he estabhshed
marriage relations with the neighboring

peoples.
In some cases the object was no doubt to

cement an
alliance,
as
with
the
Zidonians and

Hittites and the other nationalities (11
1), some of

which were forbidden to
Israelites
(Dt 7
3).
It

may be that the daughter of Pharaoh was childless
or died a considerable time before S., but his favor-

ite wife was
latterly a granddaughter of Nahash,

the Ammonite king (1 K 14 21 LXX), and it was
her son who succeeded to the throne.
Many of S.'s

wives
were no
doubt
daughters
of
wealthy
or

powerful citizens who wished by an alliance with
the king to strengthen
their own
positions.
Yet

we do not read of his marrying an IsraeUte wife.
According to the Arabian story Bilkts, the Queen of
Sheba
who
visited
S.
(1 K 10
1 ff),
was
also

married to him.
He appears to have had only one

son; we are not told of any other than Rehoboam.
His daughters were married
to
his own
officers

(1 K 4
11.15).

S. is said to have started his reign with a capital

sum of 100,000 talents of gold and a miUion talents

of silver, a sum greater than the nation-

7. Revenues al debt
of Great
Britaia.
Even
so,

this huge sum was ear-marked for the

building of the Temple (1 Oh 22
14).
His income

was, for one year, at any rate, 666 talents of gold

(1 K 10
14),
or
about
twenty
million
dollars.

This seems an immense sum, but
it probably was

not so much as
it looks.
The great mass of the

people were too poor
to have any
commodities

which they could exchange for gold.
Its principal

use was for the decoration of buildings.
Its pur-

chasing power was probably small, because so few
could afford to buy it.
It was in the same category

as the precious stones which are of great rarity, but
which are of no value unless there is a demand for
them.
In the time of S. there was no useful pur-

pose to which gold could be put in preference to
any other metal.

It is not easy to beheve that the age of
S., so

glorious in other respects, had not a literature to

correspond.
Yet
the
reign
of
the

8. Literary
sultan
Ismail
in Morocco, whom
S.

Works
much
resembles,
might be
cited
in

favor of such a supposition.
S. him-

self is stated to have composed 3,000 animal stories
and 1,005 songs
(1 K 4 32).
In the OT the fol-

lowing are ascribed to him:
three
collections of

Proverbs, 1
1 ff;
10
1 ff;
25
1 ff ;
The Song
of

Songs;
Pss 72 and 127;
Eocl (although S.
is not

named).
In Prov 25
1 the men of Hezekiah are

said to have copied out the following proverbs.

Literature.—The relativeportions of the histories by

Ewald, Stanley (who follows Ewald), Renan, Wellhausen
auclKittel; also H. Winckler, AlUestamentliche Unlersuch-
unaen; and the comms. on the Books of K and Ch.

Thomas Hunteb Weir
SOLOMON, ODES
OF.
See
Apocalyptic

Literature, B, III, 2.

SOLOMON, POOLS OF.

MON.

See Pools of Solo-

SOLOMON, PSALMS
(PSALTER)
OF.
See

Apocalyptic Literature, B, III,
1.

SOLOMON, SONG OF.
See Song of Songs.

SOLOMON, WISDOM
OF.
See Wisdom
of

Solomon.

SOLOMON'S
PORCH.
See
Porch,
Solo-

mon's.

SOLOMON'S SERVANTS
(nbbijj i-n?,

'abh'dhe sh'lomoh; 8oO\ov SaXujii&v, douloi Salomdn)

:

"The children of Solomon's servants" constituted
a company or guild of the Jewish exiles who returned
with Zerubbabel from Babylonia to Jerus in 537
BC, pursuant to the decree
of Cyrus;
they are

mentioned
5
t
(Ezr 2 55.58!lNeh 7 57.60; Neh

11
3).
As
the prime purpose
of
the
returning

exiles was the rebuilding
of the Temple and the

restoration
of
Jeh's worship
(Ezr 1 2.3),
it was

important that those who held the privileges
of

sanctuary service as a family heritage should go back
to their duties.
This included, besides priests and

Levites, the Nbthinim (q.v.) and Solomon's Serv-
ants.
In every reference to them, Solomon's Serv-

ants are connected with the Nethinim, who had
been "given" or dedicated {uHhinlm or nHhumm is

Eass. participle of nathan, "to give," "to appoint")

y David "for the service of the Levites
(Ezr 8

20);
so
Solomon's Servants
traced
their
official

beginning back to Solomon's appointment, as their
name indicates.
In the joint references they always

fall into the natural chronological order, i.e. following
the Nethinim.
It is possible, therefore, that they

are referred to
in Ezr 7 24
also, under the
title

"servants of this house of God," which immediately
follows "Nethinim" in the list of those exempt from
taxation and toUs.

What their duties in the house of God may have been

is not stated
in the
records.
These must have been

more or less menial, the more formal and honorable duties
being reserved for "the priests and Levites, the singers,
[and] porters " (Ezr 7 24).
When the ark was brought

to Jerus by David and the ceremonial of the sacrificial
system
was
more
strictly
observed,
the
services
of

priests and Levites were greatly increased, and to meet
the needs of the new order David appointed the Nethinim
(Ezr 8 20;
of
1 Ch 9
2).
Likewise the much greater

increase in such duties on the completion of Solomon's
Temple was the occasion for the dedication of an addition-
al number of these assistants to the Levites.

The number of those who returned with Zerubbabel

was not great, together with the Nethinim being only
392.
This does not appear to have been sufficient for the

needs of the sanctuary, since Ezra, in preparation for his
expedition in 458 BO, made special appeal for Nethinim
to go with him, of whom 220 responded (Ezr 8
15-20).

No doubt at the first their service was considered to be
lowly;
but by the time of the exile, certainly after
it,

their position had developed into one of considerable
honor and constituted them a privileged class in the
nation.
While many of the people were required by

Nehemiah to live in Jerus, they were allowed to dwell In
their possessions "in the cities of Judah" (Neh 11
3).

A question
of some
interest and
of
difference

of
opinion
is
whether Solomon's Servants _ were

Levites or non-Israelites.
The latterview
is the

more
generally
held,
for
the
following
reasons: