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- • ..- II i. I- lit I ,1 -1 lU |I ^fl !• -Iiu 11 1(1 1| l°5 - t -i ;Jf-"t IE. „ -d^^'d 4"? f^fTi Silt i| I '^ I i.»i ^1 fa- < 3i CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY CORNElL UNIVEHSiTV UBRABV 924 063 472 835 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924063472835 The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia THE International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia JAMES ORR, M.A., D.D., General Editor JOHN L. NUELSEN, D.D., LL.D. EDGAR Y. MULLINS, D.D., LL.D. ASSISTANT EDITORS MORRIS 0. EVANS, D.D., Ph.D., Managing Editor volume V Copyright, 1915, by The Howard-Severance Company All Rights of Translation and Reproduction Reserved International Copyright Secured ' Tht! Publishers supply this Encyclopaedia only through authorized sales-agents. Booksellers cannot obtain it. Printed by The Lakeside Press Types cast and set by the University of Chicagro Press Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. 2821 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Snuffers Solemn SOCKET, sok'et (H? > 'edhen) : The tabernacle in the wilderness being constructed as a portable building without permanent foundation, its stability was attained by the use of "sockets" into which the pillars and boards forming its walls were sunk. The word therefore is used solely in relation to the tabernacle, except in one poetic passage (Cant 6 15), where the legs of the beloved are compared to "pillars of marble set upon sockets of fine gold." In all, the tabernacle with its court rested upon 165 bases or sockets, apportioned thus : (1) silver sockets, each a talent (c 95 lbs.) in weight (Ex 38 27), viz. 96 to support the 48 boards of the tabernacle (Ex 26 19 ff) ; 4 for the pillars supporting the veil (ver 32) = 100; (2) bronze sockets, weight not given, viz. 50 to support the 50 standards on which were hung the curtains of the tabernacle on N., S. and W. (27 10 ff), 10 to support 10 pillars on the E. (vs 13 ff), and 5 to support the 5 pillars upholding the screen at the tabernacle entrance (26 27) = 65. The site for the tabernacle being chosen and leveled, these sockets would be "laid" upon it (Ex 40 18), and the tenons of the boards, or pro- jecting base of the pillar, inserted into holes made for the purpose. W. Shaw Caldecott SOCOH, so'ko (nblTB , nbte , sokhoh, "branches"), SOCO ('lailC, sokho [in Ch only]; ^m-)(.i>,Sdchd, most usual, but many forms in LXX and in AV: Socoh, Shochoh, Shoco, Shocho) : (1) A city in the Shephelah of Judah mentioned along with Jarmuth, AduUam, Azekah, etc (Josh 15 35); the Philis "gathered together at Socoh, which belongeth to Judah, and encamped between Socoh and Azekah" (1 S 17 1); it is mentioned as one of the districts from which Solomon drew his supplies (1 K 4 10, AV "Sochoh"); the association of Socoh in this verse with Hepher is worth noticing in connection with 1 Ch 4 18 ("Heber"). Soco (AV "Shoco") was one of the cities fortified by Rehoboam for the defence of Judah (2 Ch 11 7) ; it was captured by the Philis in the time of Ahaz (28 18). The site is, without doubt, Kh. esh Shuweikeh {Shuweikeh is a diminutive of Shaukeh, "a thorn"), a rounded, elongated hilltop, showing clear traces of ancient city walls. The situation is one of considerable natural strength on the south side of the Vale of Elah just where the Wddy e? SAr makes a sweep to the W. and becomes the Wddy es Sunt. Like so many such ancient sites, the hill has very steep slopes on 3 sides (S., W., and N.), and is isolated from the ridge of higher ground to the E. by a narrow neck of lower ground. In the valley to the S.W. is a plentiful spring. The site was known to Jerome in the 4th cent. He described it as 8 or 9 Rom miles from Eleutheropohs (Beit Jihrin) (PEF, III, 53, 125, Sh XVII, BR, II, 21). The Sucathites (1 Ch 2 55) were probably inhabitants of Soco. (2) A city of Judah in the S., associated (Josh 15 48) with Shamir and Jattir. This is doubtless Kh. Shuweikeh, a large ruin occupying a low hill, 10 miles S.W. of Hebron; there are many caves and rock-cut cisterns as well as drafted stones. Cheyne doubtfully locates the Socoh of 1 K 4 10 here. See PEF, 404, 410, Sh XXV; BR, I, 494. E. W. G. Mastbrman SOD, SODDEN, sod"n. See Seethe. SODA, so'da. See Nitre. SODERING, sod'er-ing (p^'l , debhek) AV in Isa 41 7, RV "soldering," of smith work. SODI, so'di Clio, ^odhi): One of the spies, representing the tribe of Zebulun (Nu 13 10) . SODOM,sod'um(mO , fdhom; S68o|jio,S(5(Zo?reo): One of the 5 Cities of the Plain (q.v.), destroyed by fire from heaven in the time of Abraham and Lot (Gen 19 24). The wickedness of the city became proverbial. The sin of sodomy was an offence against nature frequently connected with idolatrous practices (see Rawlinson, History of Phoenicia). See Sodomite. The fate of Sodom and Gomorrah is used as a warning to those who reject the gospel (Mt 10 15; 11 24; 2 Pet 2 6; Jude ver 7). The word is used in a typical sense in Rev 11 8. Sodom was probably located in a plain S. of the Dead Sea, now covered with water. The name is still preserved in Jebel Usdum (Mt. Sodom). See Arabah; Cities of the Plain; Dead Sea. Literature.—Dillmann. Genesis, 111 f ; Robinson, BE, II, 187 ft; G. A. Smith, HGHL, 505 ff; Blancken- lioru, ZDPV, XIX, 1896, 53 £E; Baedeker-Socin, Pal, 143; Buhl, GAP, 117, 271, 274. George Frederick Wright SODOM, VINE OF (n^O~"iSa , gephen fdhoni) : "For their vine is of the vine of Sodom, And of the fields of Gomorrah; Their grapes are grapes of gall. Their clusters are bitter" (Dt 32 32). This must be distinguished from the "Apples of Sodom" (q.v.), described by Jos {BJ, IV, viii, 4), which appear to have been an actual species of fruit, probably either the colocynth or the fruit of the Usher tree, Calotropis procera. It would appear, however, from the above, the only passage referring to the Vine of Sodom, that this expression is meta- phorical and does not refer to any particular plant. E. W. G. Masterman SODOMITE, sod'om-it (11J~J5, iadhesh, fern. iTttJni? , k'dheshah) : Kadhesh denotes properly a male temple prostitute, one of the class attached to cer- tain sanctuaries of heathen deities, and "conse- crated" to the impure rites of their worship. Such gross and degrading practices in Jeh's land could only be construed as a flagrant outrage; and any association of these with His pure worship was abhorrent (Dt 23 17f). The presence of Sodomites is noted as a mark of degeneracy in Rehoboam's time (1 K 14 24). Asa endeavored to get rid of them (15 12), and Jehoshaphat routed them out (22 46). Subsequent corruptions opened the way for their return, and Josiah had to break down their houses which were actually "in the house of the Lord" (2 K 23 7). The fem. k'dheshah is tr'' "prostitute" in Gen 38 21.22; Hos 4 14; in Dt 23 17 "prostitute" (AVm "sodomitess," RVm transliterates). The Eng. word is, of course, derived from Sodom, the inhabitants of which were in evil repute for unnatural vice. W. Ewing SODOMITISH, sod'om-It-ish, SEA. See Dead Sea. SODOMY, sod'o-mi. See Sodom; Sodomite; Crimes; Punishments. SOJOURNER, soj'er-ner, so'jflr-ner, suj'er-ngr. See Stranger and Sojourner. SOLDERING, sod'er-ing. See Soderinq. SOLDIER, sol'jer. See Army. SOLEMN, sol'em, SOLEMNITY, s6-lem'ni-ti: The word "solemn" had (1) at first the meaning "once in the year," through its derivation from Lat sollus, "whole," annus, "year." As, however, a regular annual occurrence is usually one of par- ticular importance, the word took on (2) the mean- Solemn Assembly Solomon THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2822 ing "ceremonious." From this is derived (3) the usual modem force of "grave" in opposition to "joyous." This last meaning is not in Bib. Eng., and the meanings of "solemn" in EV are either (1) or (2). Nor is there any certain case of (1), for the word is always a gloss in EV and, although fre- quently introduced in references to annual events (Lev 23 36, etc), it is even more often used where "annual" is foreign to the passage (2 K 10 20; Ps 92 3, etc). The use of the word in AV is unsys- tematic. It is always (except in Jer 9 2) found in conjunction with "assembly when (10 t) the latter word represents 'agarah QHgereth) (Lev 23 36, etc) (retained by RV with m "closing festival," Lev 23 36; 2 Ch 7 9; Neh 8 18). AV uses "solemnity" or "solemn day," "feast," etc, 17 t for the very common word mo'edh ("appointed" time, etc; see Feast). EVs treatment of these passages defies analysis. "Solemnity" is kept iu Isa 33 20; Bzk 46 11, and "solemn" in Lam (4 t); Hos (3 t); Zepli 3 18. In Ezk 36 38; 45 17; 46 9 it is replaced by 'appointed," elsewhere (and for mo'ddhoth, 2 Ch 8 13) by "set." The margins further complicate the renderings. AV also uses "solemn" with fagh, "feast," 4 t, and with haghagh, "keep a feast," in Dt 16 15. The word is dropped by EV, except ERV In Ps 81 3. Finally, AV and EV have "solemn sound" for higgdySn, in Ps 92 3. The context, however, demands "resoimding melody." And 11 t EV has introduced "solemn" to represent the Intensive in the form sAa6ba(A s?»ai)6a(Aore (Ex 16 23, etc), where AV has simply "sabbath" or "sabbath of rest." EV here has imitated the adverbial "solemnly" iu the similar intensified expressions in Gen 43 3; 1 S 8 9. RV Apoc translates en hemerais kairoil, "in the days of the season" (Bar 1 14), by "on the days of the solemn assembly" (AV "solemn days"), and both AV and RV have "solemn feast days" for dies festos (2 Esd 131). Otherwise AV's use of "solemn" is dropped by RV. Burton Scott Easton SOLEMN ASSEMBLY (MEETING) See Con- geegation; Fasts and Feasts; Solemn, Solem- SOLOMON, sol'o-mun (nb'bip, sMomoh; NT 2oXo|ju&v, Solomon) : I. Eahlt Life 1. Name and Meaning 2. Sources 3. Birth and Upbringing 4. His Accession 5. Closing Days of David II. Reign of Solomon 1. His Vision 2. His Policy 3. Its Results 4. Alliance with Tyre 5. Alliance with Egypt 6. Domestic Troubles III. His Buildings 1. The Temple 2. The Palace 3. Other Buildings 4. The Corbie IV. Hia Chabacter 1. Personal Qualities 2. His Wisdom 3. His Learning 4. Trade and Commerce 5. Officers of State 6. Wives 7. Eevenues 8. Literary Works Literature /. Early Life.—Solomon was the son of David and Bath-sheba, and became the 3d king of Israel. He was so named by his mother (2 S 12 1. Name 24, U^e; see Text), but by the prophet and Mean- Nathan, or by_ his father (Vulg), he ing was called Jedidiah—"loved of jeh." The name "Solomon" is derived from the root meaning "to be quiet" or "peaceful," and S. was certainly the least warlike of all the kings of Israel or Judah, and in that respect a remarkable contrast to his father (so 1 Ch 22 9). Hia name in Heb compares with Irenaeus in Gr, Friedrich in Ger., and SeUm in Arab.; but it has been suggested that the name should be pronounced shillUmah, from the word denoting "compensation," Bath-sheba's second son being given in compensation for the loss of the first (but see 3, below). The oldest sources for the biography of S. are doubtless the "Annals of Solomon" referred to in 1 K 11 41, the "history of Nathan the 2. Sources prophet," the "prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite" and the "visions of Iddo the seer," mentioned in 2 Ch 9 29, all which may be merely the relative sections of the great book of the "Annals of the Kings" from which our Books of K and Ch are both derived. These ancient works are, of course, lost to us save in so far as they have been embodied in the OT narrative. There the life of S. is contained in 2 S 12 24 f ; 1 K 1-11; 1 Ch 22—2 Ch 9. Of these sources 2 S 12 24 f and 1 K 1, 2 are much the oldest and in fact form part of one document, 2 S 9-20; 1 K 1, 2 dealing with the domestic affairs of David, which may well be contemporary with the events it describes. The date of the composition of the Boolis of Ch is about 300 BC—700 years after the time of S.—and the date of the Books of K, as a completed work, must, of course, be later than the exile. Nothing of importance is gained from citations from early historians in Jos and later writers. Far and away the best source for, at least, the inner hfe of S. would be the writings ascribed to him in the OT, could we be sure that these were genuine (see below). The children of David by Bath-sheba are given in 1 Ch 3 5 as Shimea, Shobab, Nathan and Solomon. Cf also 2 S 5 14; 1 Ch 14 4, where 3. Birth the same persons evidently are named, and Up- It would thus appear that S. was the bringing 4th son of Bath-sheba, supposing Shimea to be the child that died. Otherwise S. would be the 5th son. There are therefore some events omitted in 2 S 12 24 f, or else the names Shobab and Nathan are remains of some clause which has been lost, and not proper names. Like the heir apparent of a Turkish sultan, S. seems to have spent his best years in the seclusion of the harem. There he was doubtless more influ- enced by his mother than by his father, and in close intimacy with his mother was the prophet Nathan, who had given him his by-name of fortunate import (2 S 12 25). It was not until David lay on his deathbed that S. left the women's quarters and made his appear- ance in pubhc. That he had been 4. His Ac- selected by David, as the son of the cession favorite wife, to succeed him, is pre- supposed in the instructions which he received from his father regarding the building of the Temple. But as soon as it appeared that the life of David was nearing its end, it became evident that S. was not to have a "walk over." He found a rival in Adonijah the son of Haggith, who was apparently the eldest surviving son of his father, and who had the support of Joab, by far the strongest man of all, of Abiathar, the leading, if not the favorite, priest (cf 2 S 15 24 ff), and of the princes of the royal house. S., on the other hand, had the support of his mother Bath-sheba, David's favorite wife, of Nathan the court prophet, of Zadok who had eclipsed Abiathar, of Benaiah, the son of a priest, but one of the three bravest of David's sol- diers, and captain of the bodyguard of Cherethites and Pelethites, and of the principal soldiers. It is esp. noted that Shimei and Hushai (so Jos) took no active part at any rate with Adonijah (1 K 1 8). The conspiracy came to nothing, for, before it developed, S. was anointed at Gibeon (not Gihon, 1 K 1 33.38.45), and entered Jerus as king. 2823 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Solemn Assembly Solomon The age of S. at his accession is unknown. The expression in 1 K 3 7 is not, of course, to be taken literally (otherwise Ant, VIII, vii, 8). 5. Closing His reign opened, hke that of many an Days of oriental monarch, with a settlement in David blood of the accounts of the previous reign. Joab, David's nephew, who had brought the house within the bounds of blood revenge, was executed. Adonijah, as soon as his father had breathed his last, was on a nominal charge put to death. Abiathar was relegated to his home at Anathoth (1 K 2 26). Conditions were imposed on Shimei which he failed to keep and so forfeited his hfe (2 36 ff). These_ steps having been taken, S. began his reign, as it were, with a clean slate. //. Reign of Solomon.—It was apparently at the very beginning of his reign that S. made his famous choice of a "hearing heart," i.e. an 1. His obedient heart, in preference to riches Vision or long life. The vision took place at Gibeon (2 Ch 1 7, but in 1 K 3 4 f the ancient versions read "upon the altar that was in Gibeon. And the Lord appeared," etc) . The life of S. was a curious commentary on his early resolu- tion. One of the first acts of his reign was appar- ently, in the style of the true oriental monarch, to build himself a new palace, that of his father being inadequate for his requirements. In regard to poUtics, however, the events of Solomon's reign may be regarded as an endorsement of his choice. Under him alone was the kingdom of Israel a great world-power, fit almost to rank beside Assyria and Egypt. Never again were the bounds of Israel so wide; never again were north and south united in one great nation. There is no doubt that the credit of this result is due to the wisdom of S. S. was by nature an unwarUke person, and his whole pohcy was in the direction of peace. He disbanded the above-mentioned foreign 2. His legion, the Cherethites and Pelethites, Policy who had done such good service as bodyguard to his father. AU his officers seem to have been mediocre persons who would not be likely to force his hand, as Joab had done that of David (2 S 3 39). Even the forti- fication of Jerus and of the frontier towns was under- taken with a view to repel attack, not for the purposes of offence. S. did, no doubt, strengthen the army, esp. the cavalry arm (1 K 4 26; 10 26), but he never made any use of this, and perhaps it existed largely on paper. At any rate S. seems to have been rather a breeder of and dealer in horse- flesh than a soldier. He appears also to have had a fine collection of armor (10 25), but much of it was made of gold (10 16 f) and was intended for show, not for use. Both in his reputation for wisdom and in his aversion to war S. bears a striking resemblance to King James VI of Scotland and I of England, as depicted by the hand of Sir Walter Scott. It was fortunate for him that both the neighboring great powers were for the time in a decadent state, otherwise the history of the kingdom of Israel would have ended almost before it had begun. On the other hand, it has been remarked that if S. had had anything like the miUtary genius of David and his enthusiasm for the reUgion of Jeh, he might have extended the arms of Israel from i the Nile to the Tigris and anticipated the advent of Islam. But his whole idea was to secure him- self in peace, to amass wealth and indulge his love of grandeur with more than oriental splendor. S., in fact, was living on the achievements and reputation of his fatherj who laid the basis of security and peace on which the commercial genius of S. could raise the magnificent structure which he did. But he took the clay from the foundations in order to build the walls. The Hebrews were a mili- tary people and in that consisted their hfe. S. withdrew their energies from their 3. Its natural bent and turned them to corn- Results merce, for which they were not yet ripe. Their soul rebelled under the irksome drudgery of an industry of which they did not reap the fruits. S. had in fact reduced a free people to slavery, and concentrated the wealth of the whole country in the capital. As soon as he was out of the way, his country subjects threw off the yoke and laid claim to their ancient freedom. His son found himself left with the city and a territory as small as an English county. Solomon's chief ally was Hiram, the king of Tyre, probably the friend and ally of David, who is to be distinguished from Hiram the artificer 4. Alliance of 1 K 7 13ff. Hiram the king en- with Tyre tered into a treaty with S. which was to the advantage of both parties. Hiram suppUed S. with cedar and pine wood from Lebanon, as well as with skilled artisans for his building. Tyrian sailors were also drafted into the ships of S., the Hebrews not being used to the sea (1 K 9 26 f), besides which Phoen ships sailed along with those of S. The advantages which Hi- ram received in return were that the Red Sea was open to his merchantmen, and he also received large supplies of com and oil from the land of Israel (1 K 5 11 corrected by LXX and 2 Ch 2 10). At the conclusion of the building of the palace and Temple, which occupied 20 years, S. presented Hiram with 20 villages (1 K 9 11; the converse, 2 Ch 8 2), and Hiram made S. a return present of gold (1 K 9 14; omitted in 2 Ch). Second to Hiram was the Pharaoh of Egypt, whose daughter S. married, receiving as her dower the town of Gezer (1 K 9 16). This 5. Alliance Pharaoh is not named in the OT. with Egypt This aUiance with Egypt led to the introduction of horses into Israel (10 28 f), though David had already made a beginning on a small scale (2 S 8 4). Both these aUiances lasted throughout the reign. There is no mention of an alUance with the eastern power, which was then in a decadent state. It was probably nearer the beginning than the end of Solomon's reign that political trouble broke out within the realm. When David had 6. Domestic annexed the territory of the Edomites Troubles at the cost of the butchery of the male population (cf 2 S 8 14; Ps 60, title) one of the young princes of the reigning house effected his escape, and sought and found an asylum in Egypt, where he rose to occupy a high station. No sooner had he heard of the death of David and Joab than he returned to his native country and there stirred up disaffections against S. (1 K 11 14 ff; see Hadad), without, however, restoring inde- pendence to Edom (1 K 9 26). A second occasion of disaffection arose through a prophet having fore- told that the successor of S. would have one of the Israelite tribes only and that the other ten clans would be under Solomon's master of works whom he had set over them. This officer also took refuge in Egypt and was protected by Shishak. He re- mained there until the death of S. (1 K 11 26 ff). A third adversary was Rezon who had fled from his master the king of Zobah (1 K 11 23), and who established himself at Damascus and founded a dynasty which was long a thorn in the side of Israel. These domestic troubles are regarded as a conse- quence of the falling away of S. from the path of rectitude, but this seems tobe but a kind of antic- ipative consequence, that is, if it was not till the end of his reign that S. fell into idolatry and poly- theism (1 K 11 4). Solomon S.'s Servants THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2824 /// His Buildings.—The great undertaking of the reign of S. was, of course, The Temple (q.v.), which was at first probably considered 1. The as the Chapel Royal and an adjunct Temple of the palace. The Temple was begun iQ the 4th year of the reign and finished in the 11th, the work of the building occupying 7J years (1 K 6; 7 13 fl). The delay in beginning is remarkable, if the material were all ready to hand (1 Ch 22). Worship there was inaugurated with fitting ceremony and prayers (1 K 8). To S.J however, his own palace was perhaps a more interesting undertaking. It at any rate occupied more time, in fact 13 years (1 K 7 2. The 1-12; 9 10; 2 Ch 8 1), the time of Palace building both palace and Temple being 20 years. Possibly the building of the palace occupied the first four years of the reign and was then intermitted and resumed after the completion of the Temple; but of this there is no indication in the text. It was called the House of the Forest of Lebanon, from the fact that it was lined with cedar wood (1 K 7 2). A description ^^of it is given in 1 K 7 1-12. S. also rebuilt the wall of the city and the citadel (see Jerusalem; Millo). He Ukewise erected castles at the vulnerable points of the 3. Other frontiers—Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer Buildings (1 K 9 15), lower Beth-horon and Baalath (q.v.). According to the K^e of 1 K 9 18 and the ancient VSS as well as 2 Ch 8 4, he was the founder of Tadmor (Palmyra) ; but the Knhibh of 1 K 9 18 reads Ta;mar (cf Ezk 47 19). Some of the remains of buildings recently discovered at Megiddo and Gezer may go back to the time of S. S. could not have built on the scale he did with the resources ordinarily at the command of a free ruler. Accordingly we find that one of the 4. The institutions fostered by him was the Corvee corvee, or forced labor. No doubt some- thing of the kind always had existed (Josh 9 21) and stOI exists in all despotic govern- ments. Thus the people of a village will be called on to repair the neighboring roads, esp. when the Pasha is making a progress in the neighborhood. But S. made the thing permanent and national (1 K 6 13-15; 9 15). The immediate purpose of the levy was to supply laborers for work in the Lebanon in connection with his building operations. Thus 30,000 men were raised and drafted, 10,000 at a time, to the Lebanon, where they remained for a month, thus having two months out of every three at home. But even when the immediate cause had ceased, the practice once introduced was kept up, and it became one of the chief grievances which led to the dismemberment of the kingdom (1 K 12 18, Adoram = Adonn-am; cf 2 S 20 24), for hitherto the corvee had been confined to foreign slaves taken in war (1 K 9 21). It is said the higher posts were reserved for Israehtes, the laborers being foreigners (9 22), that is, the Israehtes acted as foremen. Some of the foreign slaves seem to have formed a guild in connection with the Temple which lasted down to the time of the exile (Ezr 2 55-57; Neh 7 57-59; see Nbthinim). IV. His Character.—In S. we have the type of a Turkish sultan, rather than a king of Israel. The Heb kings, whether of Israel or 1. Personal Judah, were, in theory at least, elect- Qualities ive monarchs like the kings of Poland. If one happened to be a strong ruler, he managed to establish his family, it might be, for three or even four generations. In the case of the Judaean dynasty the personality of the first king made such a deep impression upon the heart of the people that the question of a change of dynasty there never became pressing. But S. would prob- ably have usurped the crown if he had not inherited it, and once on the throne he became a thorough- going despot. AH poMtical power was taken out of the hands of the sheiks, although outward respect was still paid to them (1 K 8 1), and placed in the hands of officers who were simply creatures of S. The resources of the nation were expended, not on works of pubhc utiKty, but on the personal aggran- dizement of the monarch (1 K 10 18 ff). In the means he took to gratify his passions he showed him- self to be little better than a savage, and if he did not commit such great crimes as David, it was perhaps because he had no occasion, or because he employed greater cimning in working out his ends. The wisdom for which S. is so celebrated was not of a very high order; it was nothing more than practical shrewdness, or knowledge of 2. Wisdom the world and of human nature. The common example of it is that given in 1 K 3 16 ff, to which there are innumerable paral- lels in Indian, Gr and other hteratures. The same worldly wisdom Mes at the back of the Book of Prov, and there is no reason why a collection of these should not have been made by S., just as it is more hkely that he was a composer of verses than that he was not (1 K 4 32) . The statement that he had breadth of heart (4 29) indicates that there was nothing known which did not come within his ken. The word "wisdom," however, is used also in another connection, namely, in the sense of theo- retical knowledge or book learning, 3. Leaming esp. in the department of natural his- tory. It is not to be supposed that S. had any scientific knowledge of botany or zoology, but he may have collected the facts of observation, a task in which the Oriental, who cannot generahze, excels. The wisdom and understanding (1 K 4 29) for which S. was famous would consist largely in stories about beasts and trees hke the well-known Fables of Pilpai. They included also the "wisdom" for which Egypt was famous (4 30), that is, occult science. It results from this last statement that S. appears in post-Bib. and Arabian ht. as a magician. S. was very literally a merchant prince. He not only encouraged and protected commerce, but engaged in it himseK. He was in fact 4. Trade the predominant, if not sole, partner in and Com- a great trading concern, which was merce nothing less than the Israehte nation. One of his enterprises was the horse trade with Egypt. His agents bought up horses which were again sold to the kings of the Hittites and the Aramaeans. The prices paid are men- tioned (1 K 10 29). The best of these S. no doubt retained for his own cavalry (1 K 10 26). Another commodity imported from that country was hnen yarn (1 K 10 28 AV). The navy which S. built at the head of the GuK of Akaba was not at aU for military, but purely commercial ends. They were ships of Tarshish, that is, merchant ships, not ships sailing to Tarshish, as 2 Ch 9 21. They traded to Ophir (q.v.), from which they brought gold, silver, ivory, apes and peacocks, the round voyage lasting 3 years (1 K 9 26ff; 10 22). Special mention is made of "ahnug" (10 11) or "algum" (2 Ch 9 10 f) trees (q.v.) . The visit of the Queen of Sheba would Eoint to the overland caravan routes from the Yemen eing then open (1 K 10 15). What with direct imports and the result of sales, silver and cedar wood became very plentiful in the capital (10 27). The hst of Solomon's ofiioers of state is given in 1 K 4 2 if. These included a priest, two secretaries, a recorder, a commander-in-chief, a chief com- missariat officer, a chief shepherd (if we may read 2825 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Solomon S.'s Servants ro'^eh for re'eh), a master of the household, and the head of the corvee. The list should be compared with those of David's officers (2 S 8 6. Officers 16 ff; 20 23 ff). There is much re- of State semblance, but we can see that the machine of state was becoming more complicated. The bodyguard of foreign merce- naries was abohshed and the captain Benaiah pro- moted to be commander-in-chief. Two scribes were required instead of one. Twelve commissariat officers were appointed whose duty it was to forward from their districts the supplies for the royal household and stables. The list of these officials, a very curious one, is given in 1 K 4 7 ff . It is to be noted that the 12 districts into which the country was divided did not coincide with the territories of the 12 tribes. It may be remarked that S. seems as far as possible to have retained the old servants of his father. It wiU be noticed also that in all the lists there is mention of more than one priest. These "priests" retained some of their original functions, since they acted as prognosticators and diviners. Solomon's principal wife was naturally the daughter of Pharaoh; it was for her that his palace was built (1 K 3 1; 7 8; 9 16.24). 6. Wives But in addition to her he estabhshed marriage relations with the neighboring peoples. In some cases the object was no doubt to cement an alliance, as with the Zidonians and Hittites and the other nationalities (11 1), some of which were forbidden to Israelites (Dt 7 3). It may be that the daughter of Pharaoh was childless or died a considerable time before S., but his favor- ite wife was latterly a granddaughter of Nahash, the Ammonite king (1 K 14 21 LXX), and it was her son who succeeded to the throne. Many of S.'s wives were no doubt daughters of wealthy or powerful citizens who wished by an alliance with the king to strengthen their own positions. Yet we do not read of his marrying an IsraeUte wife. According to the Arabian story Bilkts, the Queen of Sheba who visited S. (1 K 10 1 ff), was also married to him. He appears to have had only one son; we are not told of any other than Rehoboam. His daughters were married to his own officers (1 K 4 11.15). S. is said to have started his reign with a capital sum of 100,000 talents of gold and a miUion talents of silver, a sum greater than the nation- 7. Revenues al debt of Great Britaia. Even so, this huge sum was ear-marked for the building of the Temple (1 Oh 22 14). His income was, for one year, at any rate, 666 talents of gold (1 K 10 14), or about twenty million dollars. This seems an immense sum, but it probably was not so much as it looks. The great mass of the people were too poor to have any commodities which they could exchange for gold. Its principal use was for the decoration of buildings. Its pur- chasing power was probably small, because so few could afford to buy it. It was in the same category as the precious stones which are of great rarity, but which are of no value unless there is a demand for them. In the time of S. there was no useful pur- pose to which gold could be put in preference to any other metal. It is not easy to beheve that the age of S., so glorious in other respects, had not a literature to correspond. Yet the reign of the 8. Literary sultan Ismail in Morocco, whom S. Works much resembles, might be cited in favor of such a supposition. S. him- self is stated to have composed 3,000 animal stories and 1,005 songs (1 K 4 32). In the OT the fol- lowing are ascribed to him: three collections of Proverbs, 1 1 ff; 10 1 ff; 25 1 ff ; The Song of Songs; Pss 72 and 127; Eocl (although S. is not named). In Prov 25 1 the men of Hezekiah are said to have copied out the following proverbs. Literature.—The relativeportions of the histories by Ewald, Stanley (who follows Ewald), Renan, Wellhausen auclKittel; also H. Winckler, AlUestamentliche Unlersuch- unaen; and the comms. on the Books of K and Ch. Thomas Hunteb Weir SOLOMON, ODES OF. See Apocalyptic Literature, B, III, 2. SOLOMON, POOLS OF. MON. See Pools of Solo- SOLOMON, PSALMS (PSALTER) OF. See Apocalyptic Literature, B, III, 1. SOLOMON, SONG OF. See Song of Songs. SOLOMON, WISDOM OF. See Wisdom of Solomon. SOLOMON'S PORCH. See Porch, Solo- mon's. SOLOMON'S SERVANTS (nbbijj i-n?, 'abh'dhe sh'lomoh; 8oO\ov SaXujii&v, douloi Salomdn) : "The children of Solomon's servants" constituted a company or guild of the Jewish exiles who returned with Zerubbabel from Babylonia to Jerus in 537 BC, pursuant to the decree of Cyrus; they are mentioned 5 t (Ezr 2 55.58!lNeh 7 57.60; Neh 11 3). As the prime purpose of the returning exiles was the rebuilding of the Temple and the restoration of Jeh's worship (Ezr 1 2.3), it was important that those who held the privileges of sanctuary service as a family heritage should go back to their duties. This included, besides priests and Levites, the Nbthinim (q.v.) and Solomon's Serv- ants. In every reference to them, Solomon's Serv- ants are connected with the Nethinim, who had been "given" or dedicated {uHhinlm or nHhumm is Eass. participle of nathan, "to give," "to appoint") y David "for the service of the Levites (Ezr 8 20); so Solomon's Servants traced their official beginning back to Solomon's appointment, as their name indicates. In the joint references they always fall into the natural chronological order, i.e. following the Nethinim. It is possible, therefore, that they are referred to in Ezr 7 24 also, under the title "servants of this house of God," which immediately follows "Nethinim" in the list of those exempt from taxation and toUs. What their duties in the house of God may have been is not stated in the records. These must have been more or less menial, the more formal and honorable duties being reserved for "the priests and Levites, the singers, [and] porters " (Ezr 7 24). When the ark was brought to Jerus by David and the ceremonial of the sacrificial system was more strictly observed, the services of priests and Levites were greatly increased, and to meet the needs of the new order David appointed the Nethinim (Ezr 8 20; of 1 Ch 9 2). Likewise the much greater increase in such duties on the completion of Solomon's Temple was the occasion for the dedication of an addition- al number of these assistants to the Levites. The number of those who returned with Zerubbabel was not great, together with the Nethinim being only 392. This does not appear to have been sufficient for the needs of the sanctuary, since Ezra, in preparation for his expedition in 458 BO, made special appeal for Nethinim to go with him, of whom 220 responded (Ezr 8 15-20). No doubt at the first their service was considered to be lowly; but by the time of the exile, certainly after it, their position had developed into one of considerable honor and constituted them a privileged class in the nation. While many of the people were required by Nehemiah to live in Jerus, they were allowed to dwell In their possessions "in the cities of Judah" (Neh 11 3). A question of some interest and of difference of opinion is whether Solomon's Servants _ were Levites or non-Israelites. The latterview is the more generally held, for the following reasons:

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