The International Law of the Sea

513 Pages·2010·36.753 MB·English

by  Donald R. Rothwell, Tim Stephens

Contents
Acknowledgements V
Preface vii
List ofA bbreviations xxiii
List of Tables xxvii
List ofF igures xxix
Table of Cases xxxi
Tables of Treaties XXXV
1 The History and Sources of the International Law of the Sea
I. Introduction
II. Historical Development of the International Law
of the Sea 2
A. The Grotian View of the Oceans 3
B. The Freedom of the Sea and Territorial Sea Claims 4
C. 1930 Hague Conference 4
D. Truman Proclamation 5
III. Work of the International Law Commission 6
IV. The First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea and the Geneva
Conventions 6
V. The Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea 9
VI. The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea I 0
A. Claims to New Maritime Zones in the 1960s IO
B. The Regime of the Deep Seabed 11
C. UNCLOS III Conference Dynamics 12
· D. The United States Position on Common He;itage and the Deep Seabed 14
VII. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 14
A. Core Provisions 15
B. Entry into Force 18
C. 1994 Implementing Agreement 18
D. 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement 19
VIII. Institutional Frameworks 20
IX. Sources of the International Law of the Sea 22
A. Customary International Law 22
B. Treaties and Conventions 22
C. Unilateral Declarations 23
D. Subsidiary Sources of Law 24
E. Soft Law 24
X. Challenges for the International Law of the Sea 25
A. Climate Change 25
xii Contents
B. Marine Environmental Security 26
C. · Creeping Jurisdiction 27
XL Review and Reform of the International Law of the Sea 27
XII. Further Reading 29
2 Coastal Waters 30
I. Introduction 30
IL History 31
III. Baselines 33
A. The Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case 33
B. International Law Commission 34
i. International Law Commission Draft Articles 35
C. UNCLOSI 36
D. Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone 37
E. Post-UNCLOS I State Practice 39
F. LOSC 40
rv. Key Issues in the Delimitation of Coastal Waters 42
A. Low-water 42
B. Straight Baselines 43
C. Low-tide Elevation 45
D. Juridical Bays 46
E. Historic Bays 47
F. Contemporary State Practice 50
V. Internal Waters 52
A. Views of the ILC 52
B. Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone 52
C. LOSC 53
D. State Practice 54
i. Territorial Sovereign Rights and Internal Waters 54
ii. Port Access 55
iii. Jurisdiction over Foreign Ships in Port 56
VI. Further Reading 57
3 Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone 58
I. Introduction 58
II. Territorial Sea in Customary International Law 59
III. Codification of the Territorial Sea 61
A. The Views of the International Associations 61
B. International Law Commission 62
C. UNCLOS I 63
D. Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone 64
E. UNCLOS II 66
F. State Practice 67
IV. UNCLOS III and the LOSC 69
V. Contemporary Territorial Sea in State Practice 71
A. Breadth of the Territorial Sea 71
B. Sovereignty and Jurisdiction 73
Contents xiii
C. Innocent and Transit Passage 76
VI. Contiguous Zone 77
A. ILC 77
B. UNCLOS I and the Geneva Convention 78
C. UNCLOS III and the LOSC 79
D. State Practice 79
VII. Further Reading 81
4 The Exclusive Economic Zone 82
I. Introduction 82
II. The Concept of the EEZ 83
III. Breadth of the EEZ and its Relationship with Other Maritime Zones 85
IV. Coastal State Rights and Obligations in the EEZ 87
A. Sovereign Rights 88
i. Living Resources 88
ii. Non-Living Resources 89
B. Jurisdictional Rights 90
i. Artificial Islands, Installations and Structures 90
ii. Marine Scientific Research 91
lll. Marine Environmental Protection 92
V. Rights and Duties of Other States in the EEZ 92
A. Navigation and Overflight 93
i. Environmental Security 94
ii. Military Security 95
B. Submarine Cables and Pipelines 96
VI. Future Developments 96
VII. Further Reading 97
5 The Continental Shelf 98
I. Introduction 98
II. The Truman Proclamation 100
III. UNCLOS I and the Geneva Convention 102
A. Work of the International Law Commission 102
B. The Convention on the Continental Shelf 104
C. North Sea Continental Shelf Cases 106
Iv. UNCLOS III 107
V. LOSC 109
A. Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf 111
B. Rights and Duties of Coastal and Other States 117
C. Relationship with the EEZ Regime 118
VI. Further Reading 119
6 The Deep Seabed 120
I. Introduction 120
II. The Deep Seabed: Environment and Resources 121
,'') III. Early Debates: Sedentary Fisheries and the
Deep Seabed 125
xiv Contents
N. The Moratorium Resolution and Principles Resolution 127
V. UNCLOS III 129
A. Reciprocating States Regime 132
VI. The LOSC and 1994 Agreement 133
A. The Main Revisions in the 1994 Agreement 134
VII. The International Seabed Authority and the Seabed Mining System 136
A. The ISBA 136
i. The Assembly 137
ii. The Council 138
ill. Recent Activities of the ISBA and the Mining Code 138
B. Main Elements of the Deep Seabed Mining Regime 141
VIII. Further Reading 144
7 High Seas 145
I. Introduction 145
A. The High Seas as a Managed Common Area 146
II. Historical Development of the High Seas 147
A. Pre-Grotian Freedoms of the High Seas 147
B. Grotian Vision of the High Seas 147
C. High Seas in Customary International Law 148
i. Jurisdiction over Vessels on the High Seas 149
III. Codification of the High Seas Regime 151
A. Pre-Geneva Codifications 151
B. Work of the ILC 152
C. UNCLOS I 152
D. UNCLOS III 153
Iv. The LOSC and the High Seas 154
A. Freedom of the High Seas 155
i. Freedom of Navigation 155
ii. Freedom of Overflight 156
iii. Freedom to Lay Submarine Cables and Pipelines 156
iv. Freedom to Construct Artificial Islands and other Installations 156
v. Freedom of Fishing 157
vi. Freedom of Scientific Research 158
B. Shipping 158
i. Nationality of Ships 159
ii. Duties of the Flag State 160
iii. Immunities 160
iv. Collisions 161
v. Assistance to Persons at Sea 161
C. Prohibitions 162
i. Piracy 162
ii. Slavery 164
iii. Drug Trafficking 165
iv. Unauthorised Broadcasting 165
D. Enforcement 166
E. Conservation and Management of Living Resources 167
Contents xv
F. Relationship with Other Maritime Zones 168
V. Further Reading 169
8 Archipelagic States 170
I. Archipelagos and International Law 170
II. Early Codifications 172
III. UNCLOSI 173
IV. The Indonesian and Philippines Claims 175
A. Indonesia 175
B. The Philippines 177
V. UNCLOSIII 179
VI. The LOSC and Archipelagic States 181
A. Archipelagic States 181
B. Archipelagic Baselines 183
C. The Legal Status of Archipelagic Waters 185
D. Archipelagic State Practice 186
i. Proclaimed Archipelagic States 187
ii. Archipelagic State Rights over Archipelagic Waters 188
VIL Further Reading 189
9 Landlocked and Geographically Disadvantaged States 190
I. Introduction 190
II. Landlocked States and Access to the Sea 193
A. Early Developments 193
B. UNCLOSI 194
C. Post-UNCLOS I Developments 195
D. TheLOSC 196
III. Landlocked States and Rights of Navigation 199
IV. Landlocked and Geographically Disadvantaged States and Marine
Resources 200
A. Living Resources of the EEZ 201
B. Living Resources of the High Seas 203
C. Mineral Resources of the Area 203
D. Ma~~ Sci;ntific Research and Transfer of Marine Technology 204
V. Further Reading 204
10 Navigational Rights and Freedoms 205
I. Freedom of the Seas and Navigational Rights and Freedoms 205
A. Traditional Interests 205
B. Contemporary Interests 206
II. Customary International Law Prior to UNCLOS I 207
A. Early State Practice 207
B. The Corfu Channel Case 209
III. UNCLOS I and the Geneva Conventions 210
A. The Work of the International Law Commission 210
B. UNCLOS I 211
IV. UNCLOS III and the LOSC 213
xvi Contents
V. Territorial Sea 214
A. Coastal State Rights in the Territorial Sea 214
B. The Right of Innocent Passage 215
C. Coastal State Rights and Duties Regarding Innocent Passage 218
i. Prevention of Passage 218
ii. Regulation of Passage 219
iii. Obligation not to Hamper Innocent Passage 220
iv. Sea Lanes and Traffic Separation Schemes 221
D. The Rights of Foreign Flagged Vessels 221
E. Warships 222
F. Nuclear Vessels and Vessels Carrying Hazardous Substances 223
G. Vessels in Distress 224
VI. High Seas 224
VII. Exclusive Economic Zone 227
VIII. Further Reading 229
11 International Straits and Archipelagic Navigation 230
I. Recognising Rights of Navigation through Straits 230
A. The Corfu Channel Case 231
B. The ILC and UNCLOS I 232
II. UNCLOS III Deliberations and the LOSC 234
A. The Straits Regime 235
B. The Archipelagic Regime 235
III. International Straits 236
A. Categories of Straits 237
B. The Regime of Transit Passage 239
i. The Act of Transit 239
ii. Duties of Ships and Aircraft in Transit 240
iii. Obligations of Strait States 241
/
iv. Regulation of Transit Passage 242
v. Enforcement of Strait State Laws and Regulations 242
C. Navigation in Specific International Straits 244
i. Turkish Straits 244
ii. Strait of Gibraltar 245
iii. Straits of Malacca and Singapore 246
iv. Torres Strait 247
rv. Archipelagic Navigation 248
A. Innocent Passage within Archipelagic Waters 249
B. Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage 250
i. Navigation in the 'Normal Mode' 251
ii. Navigation within Archipelagic Sea Lanes 251
iii. Designation of Archipelagic Sea Lanes 252
iv. Obligations while Undertaking Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage 253
v. Obligations of the Archipelagic State 254
C. State Practice ,Designating Archipelagic Sea Lanes 255
V. Further Reading 257
<, '.l
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Contents xvii
12 Military Uses of the Oceans 258
I. Introduction 258
II. Historical Overview 259
III. International Law and Naval Operations 260
A. Law of Naval Warfare 260
B. United Nations-Sanctioned Naval Operations 262
IV. Codification of the Law of the Sea 263
A. Work of the International Law Commission 264
B. UNCLOS I and the Geneva Conventions 265
C. UNCLOS III and the LOSC 265
V. Navigational Rights and Freedoms 267
A. Innocent Passage by Warships 268
B. Transit Passage by Warships 271
C. Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage by Warships 274
D. EEZ Navigation by Warships 275
i. Military Survey Activities 275
VI. Naval Operations at Sea 276
A. United Nations Sanctioned Interdictions 276
B. Proliferation Security Initiative 278
C. Weapons Testing and Military Manoeuvres 279
D. Demilitarised and Nuclear Free Zones 281
VII. Overflight by Military Aircraft 282
VIII. Further Reading 284
13 Marine Resource Management 285
I. Introduction 285
II. Non-Living Marine Resources 287
A. Resource Potential 287
B. Internal Waters and Territorial Sea 288
C. Continental Shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone 288
D. The High Seas and Deep Seabed 289
E. Joint Development 290
III. Living Resources 292
A. Fisheries and the 'Tragedy of the Commons' 292
B. Pre LOSC Developments 292
C. 1958 Geneva Conventions 295
D. LOSC Regime 297
i. Internal Waters, the Territorial Sea and Archipelagic Waters 298
ii. Exclusive Economic Zone 298
iii. Shared Stocks 303
iv. Continental Shelf 303
v. The High Seas 303
vi. Deep Seabed 306
E. Species-Specific Rules 307
i. Highly Migratory Species 307
ii. Marine Mammals · 308
iii. Anadromous Species 310
xviii Contents
iv. Catadromous Species 311
F. Post-LOSC Developments 311
i. High Seas Fishing 312
ii. Fish Stocks Agreement 315
rv. Further Reading-· 319
14 Marine Scientific Research · 320
I. Introduction 320
II. Development of the Regime for Marine Scientific Research 321
A. Early History of Marine Scientific Research 321
B. Marine Scientific Research and North-South Tensions in the
Post-WW II Period 322
C. The Pre-LOSC Regime for Marine Scientific Research 323
III. The LOSC Regime for Marine Scientific Research 324
A. General Provisions 324
B. Internal Waters, Archipelagic Waters and the Territorial Sea 327
C. Continental Shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone 327
i. Hydrographic Surveying 330
ii. Scientific Research Installations and Equipment 331
D. High Seas 333
E. Deep Seabed 333
IV. Marine Scientific Research under Other Regimes 334
V. Coastal State Legislation concerning Marine Scientific Research 335
VI. Future Developments 336
VIL Further Reading 337
15 Marine Environmental Protection 338
I. Introduction 338
IL Sources and Type of Marine Pollution 339
III. The Legal Framework: LOSC and Regional Treaties 342
A. LOSC 342
B. Regional Treaties 344
rv. Operational Vessel-Source Pollution 347
A. Operational and Accidental Vessel Pollution Distinguished 347
B. LOSC and the IMO 347
C. International Standards 348
D. The MARPOL Jurisdictional Framework 353
i. Flag States 353
ii. Port States 353
E. The LOSC Jurisdictional Framework 355
i. Flag States 355
ii. Port States 355
iii. Coastal States 356
iv. Enforcement Jurisdiction 358
V. Accidental Vessel-Source Pollution 359
A. Safety of Shipping 359
i. SOLAS 359
Contents xix
ii. Qualifications and Working Conditions for Seafarers 361
m. Preventing Collisions at Sea 362
VI. Pollution Emergencies 362
A. Responding to Pollution Emergencies 363
B. Coastal State Rights of Intervention~ 364
C. The Role of Salvors 365
VII. Liability for Vessel-Source Pollution 365
A. State Responsibility 365
B. Civil Liability 366
1. Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 366
ii. 1992 Civil Liability Convention 367
iii. The 1992 Fund Convention 369
iv. Liability for Other Pollution Damage 370
VIII. Seabed Pollution 371
A. Territorial Sea, EEZ and Continental Shelf 371
IX. Dumping at Sea 373
A. 1972 London Convention 374
B. 1996 Protocol 374
C. Jurisdiction and Enforcement 376
D. Ship Scrapping and Recycling 377
E. Regional Agreements 378
X. Land-Based and Atmospheric Pollution 378
A. 1995 Global Programme of Action 380
XI. Further Reading 382
16 Delimitation of Maritime Boundaries 383
I. Introduction 383
A. Grisbadarna Arbitration 384
B. Influence of Boggs 385
II. Work of the International Law Commission 386
III. Codification of the Law 387
A. Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone 387
B. Convention on the Continental Shelf 388
IV. Early Cases 389
A. North Sea Continental Shelf Cases 389
B. Anglo-French Arbitration 390
V. LOSC 391
VI. The !CJ and Maritime Boundary Delinritation 393
VII. Principles of Maritime Boundary Delimitation 397
A. Delimitation Methodology 397
i. Territorial Sea 398
ii. EEZ/Continental Shelf/Single Maritime Boundary 398
B. Territorial Sea Delinritations 399
C. Equitable Solution/Equitable Result 401
D. Equidistance and Median Lines 401
E. Relevant and Special Circumstances 402
i. Special Circumstances 403