THE INFLUENCE OF PEER RELATIONSHIPS ON WOMEN'S LIVED BODY EXPERIENCES ...

437 Pages·2013·3.96 MB·English

by  Nina Mafrici

THE INFLUENCE OF PEER RELATIONSHIPS

ON WOMEN’S LIVED BODY EXPERIENCES ACROSS THE LIFESPAN

by

Nina M. Mafrici

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Graduate Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development
Ontario Institute for the Studies in Education
University of Toronto

©Copyright by Nina M. Mafrici 2013
THE INFLUENCE OF PEER RELATIONSHIPS
ON WOMEN’S LIVED BODY EXPERIENCES ACROSS THE LIFESPAN
Doctor of Philosophy 2013
Nina M. Mafrici
Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development
University of Toronto

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to explore the role of peers in women’s lived experiences
in their bodies from childhood to young adulthood. The present study used a qualitative life
history methodology to delineate the range of peer processes, both adverse and protective, that
affect women’s connection to their bodies over time, as well as the meaning women make of
these processes, and their internalized reactions to peer influences across a developmental
trajectory. In-depth interviews were conducted among fourteen women between the ages of 25
and 35, representing diverse social and cultural backgrounds, as well as current and past eating
and body image problems.
Women participated in open-ended interviews, using a series of guided questions about
their experiences with peers that affected their lived experiences in their bodies, from childhood
through to adulthood. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed for themes using a grounded
theory methodology. Two interrelated models emerged from the data that clarified ways in which
relationships with peers shaped interviewed women’s lived experiences in their bodies over time.
The Peer Processes Related to Dominant and Alternative Norms, Ideals and Expectations Model
addresses peer processes related to the promotion of dominant and alternative norms, ideals and
expectations regarding appearance and ways of inhabiting the body as girls and women. The
Implications of Peer Processes on Social Power and Acceptance model delineates the ways in
which widely sanctioned norms, ideals and expectations pertaining to participants’ bodies and
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appearances, are expressed and internalized through concerns for peer status, power, belonging
and acceptance. The research has both clinical and research implications, shedding important
light on the ways in which peers enhance, maintain and disrupt girls’ and women’s connection to
their bodies over time.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to many people, who throughout this journey have provided me with much
support and encouragement along the way.
Firstly, I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Niva Piran.
Your passion for, and commitment to the advancement of women’s mental health, and feminist
research have been a strong source of inspiration for me. Your unwavering support, mentoring
and guidance has fuelled my passion for research, instilled a sense of curiosity in the world, and
fostered my ability to think critically as a researcher, clinician, and most importantly, as a
woman. You have encouraged me to challenge myself in ways that I never thought possible, and
I am honoured to have had the privilege to work closely with you over the past several years.
You have shaped me into the person that I am today, and I am forever grateful.
Thank you also to my friends and family who have helped me to stay focused on my goal
of completing this dissertation, offering their insights, and celebrating in my accomplishments
along the way. I am particularly grateful to my father, Antonio, my mother-in-law, Donna, and
my husband, Paul, who have spent countless hours as a soundboard for my ideas, listened to my
frustrations, and provided comforting and encouraging words when I needed it most. Paul, I
especially appreciate your patience and understanding throughout this process, your excitement
for this project, and your unwavering belief in me. This would not have been possible without
you by my side.
To my colleague and friend, Michele, few words can adequately describe how much your
support has meant to me. Whenever I felt lost, frustrated, and confused, you have been there to
listen, encourage and guide me to stay focused on my goals. You have celebrated with me in the
highs and motivated me in the lows, and I am so fortunate to call you one of my dearest friends.
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To my committee members, Dr. Karin Jasper and Dr. Abby Goldstein, thank you for your
insightful and thought-provoking feedback on my work, as well as your enthusiasm for the
project, and consistent support and encouragement. Thank you also to Dr. Gail McVey and to my
external examiner, Dr. Jennifer Mills. I am truly honoured to have such incredible researchers
and clinicians on my committee.
And last but not least, I would like to thank the fourteen wonderful women who shared
their time and their personal stories with me as part of this research study. You have inspired me
to think of peer relationships and their connection to our bodies in new and exciting ways. I
greatly value your interest and commitment to the project, which without you, would not have
been possible.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. iv

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... xi

LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................... xiv

DEDICATION .................................................................................................................. xv

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1

Chapter One
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. 4
Sociocultural Influences ............................................................................................ 4
Internalization of the Objectifying Gaze and the Transmission of
Gender-Based Discourses................................................................................. 5
Familial Factors ................................................................................................ 7
Peer Relationships in a Developmental Context........................................................ 8
The Construction of the Self ............................................................................. 8
Symbolic Interactionists and Internalization of the Self ................................... 9
The Developing Self ............................................................................. 10
Childhood ...................................................................................... 10
Adolescence ................................................................................... 12
Implications of Puberty ................................................................. 16
Late Adolescence to Young Adulthood ........................................ 17
Peer Interactions Across the Lifespan .............................................................. 18
The Organization of Peer Experiences ................................................. 19
Interactions .................................................................................... 19
Relationships and Friendships ....................................................... 20
Groups ........................................................................................... 21
The Influence of Ecological Systems Theory ............................... 21
Early Childhood .................................................................................... 22
Middle Childhood to Adolescence ....................................................... 23
Adulthood ............................................................................................. 25
Peers in Connection to the Body................................................................................ 28
Quantitative Literature ..................................................................................... 29
The Internalization and Adoption of Appearance Norms Across
Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood .............................................. 30
Appearance Conversations and Appearance-related Pressure ...... 31
Perceived Importance of Appearance to Peers .............................. 35
Appearance-based Acceptance ...................................................... 38
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Appearance Comparisons .............................................................. 39
Appearance-related Victimization ................................................ 41
Other Relational Constructs .......................................................... 44
Qualitative Literature ....................................................................................... 46
‘The Teen Lifestyle Project’ ................................................................. 46
Weight Watching Among Adolescent Girls ......................................... 49
‘Girlfighting’ and Body-based Harassment .......................................... 51
Girls’ Agency and the Discourse of Individuality ................................ 53
A Prospective Investigation of Girls’ Lived Body Experiences .......... 54
Women’s Recount of their Relational Experiences During
Adolescence .......................................................................................... 56
Critical Social Perspective ......................................................................................... 59
Body Image Discourse ..................................................................................... 59
Towards the Developmental Theory of Embodiment ...................................... 60
The Importance of Social Location .................................................................. 65
Rationale for the Present Study ................................................................................. 66

Chapter Two
METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 68
Qualitative Research .................................................................................................. 68
Data Collection ................................................................................................. 69
Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 69
Life History Approach ............................................................................................... 70
Situating Oneself as the Researcher........................................................................... 72
Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 73
Selection and Recruitment of Participants ........................................................ 73
Interview Process .............................................................................................. 75
Summary of Participants .................................................................................. 76
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 88

Chapter Three
PEER PROCESSES RELATED TO THE IDEAL BODY APPEARANCE ................... 92
Peer Processes Promoting the Ideal Body Appearance ............................................. 93
Social Comparison ........................................................................................... 93
Differences in Body Size and Shape .................................................... 94
Pubertal Changes .................................................................................. 106
Ethnocultural Differences and Cultural Transitions ............................. 109
Summary ............................................................................................... 115
Evaluative Messages and Appearance-based Conversations ........................... 117
Messages that Socially Reward ............................................................ 119
Disapproving and/or Critical Messages ................................................ 122
Diet and Appearance Talk ............................................................. 123
Appearance-based Teasing and Harassment ................................. 126
Body Size and Shape............................................................ 127
Ethnocultural Differences .................................................... 131
Summary ............................................................................................... 132
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Peer Processes Challenging the Ideal Body Appearance ........................................... 134
Promoting Alternative Body Norms................................................................. 134
Diversity in Appearances...................................................................... 135
Expressions of Body Comfort .............................................................. 139
Shaping Life Experiences .................................................................... 140
Summary ............................................................................................... 143
Messages that Challenge and Resist Preoccupation with the Ideal .................. 144
Supportive Messages ............................................................................ 145
Active Resistance to Negative Messages ............................................. 147
Summary ............................................................................................... 148
Overall Summary of Peer Processes Related to Norms, Ideals and Expectations
Pertaining to the Female Body Appearance .............................................................. 148

Chapter Four
PEER PROCESSES RELATED TO IDEALIZED WAYS OF INHABITING
THE BODY AS A GIRL AND WOMAN ....................................................................... 152
Food and Eating ......................................................................................................... 152
Promoting Adherence to Norms and Ideals Associated with Food and
Eating................................................................................................................ 153
The Pursuit of Thinness ........................................................................ 153
Peer Dieting ................................................................................... 154
Pressures for Thinness ................................................................... 157
Ideals of Health and Wellness .............................................................. 162
Dichotomy of Healthy vs. Unhealthy Eating ................................ 162
Upholding the Healthy Ideal ......................................................... 165
Summary ............................................................................................... 167
Challenging Adherence to Norms and Ideals Associated with Food and
Eating................................................................................................................ 169
Modeling Comfort in Appetite ............................................................. 170
Enjoying and Appreciating Food .......................................................... 173
Summary ............................................................................................... 175
Sexuality .................................................................................................................... 176
Promoting Adherence to Norms and Ideals Associated with Sexuality ........... 176
Male Evaluative Gaze ........................................................................... 177
Sexual Harassment ............................................................................... 179
Summary ............................................................................................... 188
Challenging Adherence to Norms and Ideals Associated with Sexuality ........ 189
Freedom from the Male Gaze and Pressures Associated with Sexuality ......... 190
Absence of the Male Evaluative Gaze .................................................. 190
Relationships that Challenge Pressures Associated with Sexuality ..... 191
Summary ............................................................................................... 194
Activities, Interests and/or Educational Pursuits ....................................................... 194
Promoting Norms and Ideals Associated with Engagement in Activities,
Interests and/or Educational Pursuits ............................................................... 195
Gender Segregation .............................................................................. 196
Passivity ................................................................................................ 199
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Activity for Weight Control ................................................................. 204
Summary ............................................................................................... 206
Challenging Norms and Ideals Associated with Engagement in Activities,
Interests and/or Educational Pursuits ............................................................... 208
Physical Immersion .............................................................................. 209
Passion .................................................................................................. 213
Ambition ............................................................................................... 215
Summary ............................................................................................... 218
Overall Summary of Peer Processes Related to Idealized Ways of Inhabiting the
Body as Girl and Woman........................................................................................... 220

Chapter Five
IMPLICATIONS OF PEER PROCESSES ON SOCIAL POWER AND
ACCEPTANCE ................................................................................................................ 227
Promoting Pressures of Peer Conformity and Compliance ....................................... 227
Internalization of Social Inequity and/or Privilege .......................................... 228
Body Size and Shape ............................................................................ 229
Sexuality and Desirability .................................................................... 234
Clothing ................................................................................................ 237
Ethnocultural Differences ..................................................................... 244
Relational Connections ......................................................................... 249
Summary ............................................................................................... 252
Consequences of Social Disempowerment and Peer Rejection ....................... 254
Controlling the Body ............................................................................ 255
Dressing to ‘Fit In’ ............................................................................... 261
Pressures of Cultural Assimilation ....................................................... 264
Summary ............................................................................................... 268
Resisting Pressures of Peer Conformity and Compliance ......................................... 270
Group Protective Factors .................................................................................. 270
Accepting, Nonjudgmental Peer Groups .............................................. 271
Alternative Group Norms ..................................................................... 273
Summary ............................................................................................... 278
Individual Protective Factors............................................................................ 279
Agency .................................................................................................. 279
Clarity and Locating Oneself in Relation to Peer Group...................... 284
Summary ............................................................................................... 289
Overall Summary of the Implications of Peer Processes on Social Power and
Acceptance ................................................................................................................. 290

Chapter Six
DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................... 293
Model 1: Peer Processes Related to Dominant and Alternative Norms, Ideals and
Expectations Regarding Body Appearance and Idealized ways of Inhabiting the
Body as Girls and Women ......................................................................................... 294
Peer Processes Related to the Ideal Body Appearance .............................................. 295
Peer Processes Promoting the Ideal Body Appearance ........................................ 295
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Social Comparison ................................................................................ 295
Evaluative Messages and Appearance-based Conversations ............... 307
Peer Processes Challenging the Ideal Body Appearance ...................................... 315
Promoting Alternative Body Norms ..................................................... 315
Messages that Challenge and Resist Preoccupation with the Ideal ...... 318
Peer Processes Related to Idealized Ways of Inhabiting the Body as Girl and
Woman ....................................................................................................................... 319
Food and Eating .................................................................................................... 319
Promoting Adherence to Norms and Ideals Associated with Food and
Eating .................................................................................................... 319
Challenging Adherence to Norms and Ideals Associated with Food
and Eating ............................................................................................. 328
Sexuality ............................................................................................................... 330
Promoting Adherence to Norms and Ideals Associated with
Sexuality ................................................................................................... 330
Challenging Adherence to Norms and Ideals Associated with
Sexuality ................................................................................................... 337
Activities Interests and/or Educational Pursuits ................................................... 338
Promoting Norms and Ideals Associated with Engagement in Activities,
Interests and Educational Pursuits ............................................................ 339
Challenging Norms and Ideals Associated with Engagement in Activities,
Interests and/or Educational Pursuits ........................................................ 345
Model 2: The Implications of Peer Processes on Social Power and Acceptance ...... 347
Promoting Pressures of Peer Conformity and Compliance ....................................... 348
Internalization of Social Inequity and/or Privilege .............................................. 348
Consequences of Social Disempowerment and Peer Rejection ............................ 355
Resisting Peer Conformity and Compliance .............................................................. 360
Group Protective Factors ...................................................................................... 360
Accepting, Nonjudgmental Peer Groups ................................................... 360
Alternative Group Norms .......................................................................... 362
Individual Protective Factors ................................................................................ 364
Agency ..................................................................................................... 365
Clarity and Locating Oneself in Relation to the Peer Group .................... 365
Strengths and Limitations of the Current Investigation ............................................. 366
Strengths ............................................................................................................... 366
Limitations ............................................................................................................ 368
Areas for Future Research ......................................................................................... 369
Preventative and Clinical Implications ...................................................................... 373
References ......................................................................................................................... 378

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