The influence of Ḥadīth on the architecture of early congregational mosques

451 Pages·2011·6.86 MB·English

The influence of Ḥadīth on the architecture of early
congregational mosques

Essam Abdelrahman

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of
PhD

The University of Leeds
Institute for Medieval Studies

September, 2010
ii

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that
appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work
of others.

This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material
and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper
acknowledgement.

The right of Essam Abdelrahman to be identified as Author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

© 2010, the University of Leeds, Essam Abdelrahman
i

Dedication

To the soul of my mother
To my father, wife and son
Acknowledgements ii

Acknowledgements
I do believe that this work would not have been achieved without the appreciated
help and support of certain people to whom I am cordially grateful.
Eternal gratitude goes to Prof. Richard Morris whose notable
experience, exceptional erudition and outstanding personality have had great
impact on this work and the way I have dealt with it. He expertly knew how to
guide me when it was vague, raise my spirits when it was hard, and renew my
determination when it began to wane. I have been really privileged to have
such a great supervisor and stupendous mentor.
I am also deeply grateful to Prof. Hugh Kennedy who has kindly made
me acquainted with many things which have been essential for this research.
Prof. Kennedy has applied his magnificent intellect and enlightening knowledge
to the work in a way that helps it shape up properly. I will always be proud to
have been a disciple of such a respected and eminent scholar.
Now I come to a special person, Dr Mary Swan. I believe that my
period of study would have been much harder if I had not been blessed with
her devoted encouragement and knowledgeable backing. I will always
remember many of her instructive and profound sayings. She has generously
dedicated much of her time and experience to sensitively guide me all the way
through.
I am also indebted to Dr Ann Christys, my advising tutor during the first
year. Her constructive discussions have always given me valuable threads to
follow. Special thanks also to Prof. Dionysius Agius who, having been my
supervisor in the early period of the work, sensibly guided me when the thesis
was not more than initial thoughts and raw material.
My special thanks go to Ms Alison Martin, the secretary of the IMS, for
Acknowledgements iii

her alert assistance and kind guidance with all the administrative issues. I am
also thankful to Dr. Thallein Antun who kindly sent me her valuable thesis
which I had been after for quite a while. I am also grateful for the practical
discussions which she has kindly shared with me.
Also, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to all the members
and students of the IMS for the help and thoughtfulness they have shown
towards me in general and during the very efficacious work-in-progress
seminars in particular.
I also extend my thanks to the Library staff, especially the Document
Supply Dept. for helping me get hold of a lot of key sources of special
importance for the study.
I believe that I am indebted in every single positive thing in my life to
my parents who provided me with indescribable affection, care and guidance
when I was simply helpless. Most importantly, they provided me with a model
which I have been trying to emulate. My thanks then goes to my wife, Marwa,
the real partner of this long and arduous journey. She has supported me
tirelessly and scrupulously to realize the goals and overcome the difficulties. I
do believe that I have been blessed with a fantastic wife who always gives
more than expectable. She shows limitless understanding and makes countless
sacrifices at all times.
Finally, I do believe that whatever the words I use, I can never do
justice with the above people and their value for this work.
Abstract iv

Abstract
This study weighs up the influence of Ḥadīth, „Traditions of Prophet Muḥammad‟,
on the architecture of the major congregational mosques which were built from
the rise of Islam in 1/622 to the end of the Umayyad period in 132/750.
The thesis is divided into eight chapters. The first is an introduction which
deals with: the reasons behind underestimating the role of Ḥadīth in shaping
mosque architecture, the main questions of the study, and the approaches and
methodologies applied to deal with these questions. The second chapter discusses
the historiographical problems of Ḥadīth and early Arabo-Islamic sources. The third
examines the nature and functions of the sizable hypaethral building which was
erected by the Prophet and which we believe was a mosque and not simply an
abode for the Prophet and his family. The fourth chapter deals with the history and
form of this structure, which represents, by definition, an embodiment of Ḥadīth
regarding mosques. The fifth chapter, however, asks whether there was an
„orthodox‟ form of mosque according to Ḥadīth. It also tries to explore the features
of such a form. The sixth and seventh chapters investigate whether and how
Ḥadīth influenced the architectural evolution of the mosques which were built
under the Rightly-guided Caliphs and those built by the Umayyads, respectively.
Chapter eight is an epilogue that summarizes the findings of the study.
Table of contents v

Table of contents
Acknowledgements .................................................................................... ii
Abstract ...................................................................................................... iv
Table of contents ........................................................................................ v
Transliteration used .................................................................................. ix
Glossary of early Islamic architecture terms ............................................ x
List of plans, illustrations and tables ...................................................... xii
Chapter 1: Introduction – aim, scope, questions and methodology ....... 1
1.1. Aim and scope............................................................................................... 2
1.2. Why Ḥadīth influence on mosque architecture has been underestimated? .......... 2
1.3. Problems with these views ............................................................................. 7
1.4. Questions of the study ................................................................................. 18
1.5. Methodology ............................................................................................... 18
1.5.1. Approaching Ḥadīth ............................................................................... 18
1.5.2. Studying early mosques ......................................................................... 22
1.5.3. How can the influence of Ḥadīth on the architecture of early mosques be
measured? ............................................................................................ 23
1.6. Main points in the discussion ........................................................................ 25
Chapter 2: Ḥadīth and early Arabic sources – an historiographical
discussion .................................................................................................. 27
2.1. The study of Ḥadīth ..................................................................................... 28
2.1.1. Definition ............................................................................................. 28
2.1.2. Perspectives on the history of Ḥadīth transmission – incentives and
challenges ............................................................................................. 32
2.1.3.1 During the Prophet‟s life ..................................................................... 32
2.1.3.2 Under the Rāshidūn Caliphs ................................................................ 34
2.1.3.3 Under the Umayyads (41-132/661-750) ............................................... 39
2.1.3.4 Under the ῾Abbāsids (132-656/750-1258) ............................................ 46
2.1.3. Ḥadīth and modern scholarship .............................................................. 59
2.2. Sources for the study of early mosques ......................................................... 65
2.2.1. Examples of primary sources .................................................................. 72
Table of contents vi

Chapter 3: The ‘house of the Prophet’ or the ‘mosque of the Prophet’?
................................................................................................................... 82
3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 82
3.2. Two views................................................................................................... 83
3.3. On the sources ............................................................................................ 85
3.4. On „profane‟ behaviours ............................................................................... 86
3.5. Architectural points to consider ..................................................................... 88
3.6. Qur᾽ān and the „mosque of the Prophet‟ ........................................................ 92
3.7. Other mosques in the time of the Prophet ..................................................... 97
Chapter 4: The mosque of the Prophet in his time – an embodiment of
Ḥadīth regarding mosques ..................................................................... 101
4.1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 102
4.2. Madīnah in pre- and early Islamic times ....................................................... 105
4.3. History ...................................................................................................... 107
4.4. Site .......................................................................................................... 108
4.5. Stages of building the mosque .................................................................... 112
4.5.1. Early stages of building the mosque ..................................................... 113
4.5.2. The mosque after changing the qiblah .................................................. 121
4.5.3. The expansion of 7 AH ........................................................................ 122
4.6. Components of the mosque ........................................................................ 124
4.6.1. Isṭiwānāt ............................................................................................ 124
4.6.2. Miḥrāb ............................................................................................... 125
4.6.3. Minbar ............................................................................................... 125
4.6.4. Doors ................................................................................................. 126
4.6.5. Apartments of the Prophet ................................................................... 127
Chapter 5: Specifications of mosque architecture according to Ḥadīth
................................................................................................................. 130
5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 131
5.2. What is the mosque? ................................................................................. 134
5.3. Mosque status ........................................................................................... 136
5.4. The virtue of building mosques ................................................................... 138
5.5. Craftsmen and workers .............................................................................. 142
5.6. Site .......................................................................................................... 143
5.6.1. Building mosques on or at tombs.......................................................... 147
Table of contents vii

5.6.1.1. The meaning and ḥukm of „taking graves as mosques‟ ..................... 149
5.7. Components of the mosque ........................................................................ 154
5.7.1. qiblah wall .......................................................................................... 154
5.7.2. Enclosure wall ..................................................................................... 155
5.7.3. Ẓullah ................................................................................................ 157
5.7.4. Raḥbah .............................................................................................. 157
5.7.5. The miḥrāb, „concave prayer niche‟ ....................................................... 158
5.7.5.1. Definition and Origin ..................................................................... 158
5.7.5.2. The ḥukm of its adoption .............................................................. 164
5.7.6. The minaret ........................................................................................ 168
5.7.7. Minbar, „pulpit‟ .................................................................................... 172
5.7.8. Doors ................................................................................................. 175
5.7.9. Khawkhah, „wicket‟ .............................................................................. 176
5.7.10. Maqṣūrah ........................................................................................... 176
5.7.11. Floor coverings ................................................................................... 178
5.8. Decoration ................................................................................................ 179
5.9. Spolia and the conversion of the places of worship of other faiths into mosques
193
5.10. Ḥadīth attitude toward visual and plastic arts ............................................ 198
5.11. Conclusion ............................................................................................. 205
Chapter 6: The influence of Ḥadīth on the architecture of the Rāshidūn
mosques .................................................................................................. 212
6.1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 213
6.2. Architectural works of the Rāshidūn ............................................................ 217
6.3. Ṣaḥābīs‟ attitudes towards building ............................................................. 218
6.4. Examples of Ḥadīth consultation ................................................................. 225
6.5. The influence of Ḥadīth on the architectural features of early mosques .......... 235
6.5.1. Location ............................................................................................. 236
6.5.2. Builders of mosques and their awareness of Ḥadīth................................ 241
6.5.3. Components of the mosque ................................................................. 247
6.5.3.1. The miḥrāb, „prayer niche‟ ............................................................. 247
6.5.3.2. The minbar, „pulpit‟ ....................................................................... 248
6.5.3.3. Floor covering .............................................................................. 249
6.5.4. Plan and material ................................................................................ 250
Table of contents viii

.5.6.6 Spolia and the conversion of churches into mosques .............................. 255
6.6. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 260
Chapter 7: The influence of Ḥadīth on the architecture of the Umayyad
mosques .................................................................................................. 261
7.1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 262
7.2. Scope of the chapter .................................................................................. 269
7.3. Builders of the Umayyad mosques: their knowledge of Ḥadīth and their religious
attitudes.................................................................................................... 269
7.4. How did the Umayyad patrons of the mosques regard the model of the Prophet?
281
7.5. What incentives were there for building and perfecting the Umayyad mosques?
283
7.6. Why was the Dome of the Rock built? ......................................................... 288
7.7. The Ka῾bah ............................................................................................... 291
7.8. How were the Umayyad mosques regarded by contemporary religious authorities?
294
7.9. Components of the mosque ........................................................................ 299
7.9.1. Miḥrāb (concave prayer niche) ............................................................. 299
7.9.2. Manārah (minaret) .............................................................................. 305
7.9.3. Qubbah (dome) .................................................................................. 307
7.9.4. Ḍarīḥs (funerary domes) ...................................................................... 308
7.9.5. Minbar (pulpit) .................................................................................... 310
7.9.6. Maqṣūrah ........................................................................................... 312
7.9.7. Bayt al-māl (the Treasure House) ......................................................... 314
7.9.8. Maṭāhir (Baths and ablution places) ...................................................... 315
7.9.9. Shurrafāt (crenellations) ...................................................................... 316
7.9.10. Decoration .......................................................................................... 317
7.10. Conversion of churches into mosques ...................................................... 323
7.11. Conclusion ............................................................................................. 326
Chapter 8: Conclusions .......................................................................... 338
Bibliographies ......................................................................................... 352
Plans, illustrations and tables................................................................ 402