the implications of the values and behaviours of actors for ecotourism policy

382 Pages·2017·5.45 MB·English

by  Bhayu Rhama

THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE VALUES AND
BEHAVIOURS OF ACTORS FOR ECOTOURISM
POLICY: A CASE STUDY OF SEBANGAU NATIONAL
PARK, CENTRAL KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA

by

Bhayu Rhama

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Central Lancashire

February 2017
STUDENT DECLARATION FORM

Concurrent registration for two or more academic awards
I declare that while registered as a candidate for the research degree, I have
not been a registered candidate or enrolled student for another award of the
University or other academic or professional institution

Material submitted for another award
I declare that no material contained in the thesis has been used in any other
submission for an academic award and is solely my own work

Signature of Candidate

_____________________________________________________

Type of Award : PhD
School : Management

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ABSTRACT
A number of studies have suggested that the management of national parks might be
best served if undertaken according to the principles of ecotourism, a concept that
potentially provides a ‘win-win’ solution to the conflicting aspects of conservation and
recreation in protected areas. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to critically
appraise the potential of ecotourism as a framework for implementing tourism in a
national park. More specifically, it seeks to explore the implications of actors’ values for
the effective implementation of ecotourism policy. Many studies overlook the
importance of the understanding and response of different values as fundamental
aspects in the process of policy-making.
Based on a case study of Sebangau National Park, Kalimantan, Indonesia, and using
Schwartz’s theory as the fundamental conceptual framework, this research progresses
the argument that the development of ecotourism policy should be seen in terms of the
values espoused by relevant actors by seeking to identify the values and behaviours of
the actors involved in ecotourism development in the park and the subsequent
management implications. This study adopts the philosophy of pragmatism and mixed
methods as its methodological approach, and is carried out in three phases: interviews
(qualitative), focus group discussions (qualitative) and a survey (quantitative), followed
by appropriate methods of analysis, such as performing ANCOVA and performing
grounded theory to analyse qualitative data, supported by NVivo software.
The results show that the Indonesian people, from the tourists’ perspective, embrace
the culture of embeddedness with a tendency towards the value of Conformity that
implies they are willing to follow regulations because they are aware of the importance
of the local community and of the natural resources in the park. Meanwhile, the value
of Benevolence should be the value espoused by policy makers because it is exerts a
more significant influence on the concept of ecotourism in comparison with the other
nine Schwartz’s values. In addition, even though several studies show that the value of
Power tends not to be pro-environment, the involvement of actors who embrace it
cannot be ignored in the policy-making process because it is required to demonstrate
leadership, participation, self-determination, competence and self-efficacy behaviour.
Moreover, the importance of the Hedonism value based on tourists’ perspective implies
that tourists have the potential to behave in an anti-conservation manner for the sake of
personal satisfaction; thus, it will lead to consumptive behaviour at tourist locations,
even for ecotourism destinations.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This thesis has been a journey of study that I will never forget because the process has
been a significant part of my life’s journey. Many people, too numerous to detail here,
have willingly assisted and contributed, for which I am very grateful. However, I would
like to express my deep appreciation and sincere gratitude in particular to several
people who have supported and helped me so much throughout this period.
I am extremely grateful and indebted to my Director of Studies, Professor Richard
Sharpley, for his precious time, encouragement, inspiration and his guidance on how to
present the thesis more like an interesting story which flowed and was sufficiently
thorough. Also to my Supervisor, Doctor Iain Adams, who has an aura of ‘Indonesia’. I
would like to thank him because he gave me a comfortable feeling during my study in
England. Without them, this thesis would never have been produced.
I thank the Directorate General of Resources for Science, Technology and Higher
Education Indonesia for granting a DIKTI scholarship, and the University of Palangka
Raya for the opportunity given to me in pursuing higher education.
I am also grateful to Joan and James Cook, who I believe were sent by The Great
Almighty because they were miraculously able to be involved in this process by giving
their time and patience to re-read and provide suggestions for the development of the
thesis.
I would also like to thank my dad, Soeyatno Kartosoewarno, my mum, Titik Sundari, my
sister, Yuanieta Yustitia, and my parents-in-law, Alex Sopaheluwakan and Sunarni
Imawati, who have always supported me morally and physically throughout the process
of my studies.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my wife, Meta Sopaheluwakan, and my
daughters, Christabelle and Zoey Rhama, who have given their love, peace, patience
and prayer to accompany me throughout this study.
Thank you Jesus Christ for the life you have given to me…

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................... III
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................... IV
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................. IX
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... XI
LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................... XII
ACRONYMS ................................................................................................... XIII

CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................. 1
BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 1
1.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Problem discussion ......................................................................................... 7
1.1.1 What values are espoused by the actors in the development of
ecotourism in Sebangau National Park? ......................................................... 8
1.1.2 What are the perceptions and behaviours that result from actors’ values
with respect to their interaction with the environment and with other
actors in Sebangau National Park? ................................................................. 8
1.1.3 What are the implications for the success of the ecotourism policy-
making process in Sebangau National Park, and, if relevant for protected
area / national parks management more general? .......................................... 8
1.2 Research objectives ........................................................................................ 9
1.3 Research methods .......................................................................................... 9
1.4 Previous research and implications ............................................................... 10
1.5 Thesis structure ............................................................................................ 11

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................... 13
THE CONTEXT: NATIONAL PARK, ECOTOURISM AND SEBANGAU
NATIONAL PARK ............................................................................................ 13
2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 13
2.1 National parks: Roles and issues .................................................................. 13
2.1.1 Roles of national parks .................................................................................. 19
2.2 National park management ........................................................................... 25
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2.2.1 National parks management in Indonesia ..................................................... 36
2.3 The concept of ecotourism ............................................................................ 49
2.3.1 Ecotourism in Indonesia ................................................................................ 56
2.3.2 Ecotourism policy in Indonesia ...................................................................... 58
2.4 The case study: Sebangau National Park ..................................................... 60
2.4.1 The problem in Sebangau National Park ....................................................... 67
2.5 Summary ...................................................................................................... 70

CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................... 72
ACTORS AND COLLABORATION .................................................................. 72
3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 72
3.1 Actors: Definitions and theories ..................................................................... 72
3.2 Actor Network Theory ................................................................................... 80
3.3 Collaboration Theory ..................................................................................... 83
3.4 Summary ...................................................................................................... 87

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................. 88
PERCEPTIONS, VALUES AND BEHAVIOURS .............................................. 88
4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 88
4.1 Perceptions ................................................................................................... 88
4.1.1 The relationship between perceptions, behaviours and values ...................... 91
4.2 A sociological perspective on values ............................................................. 94
4.2.1 Environmental values .................................................................................... 97
4.2.2 Landscapes values ..................................................................................... 101
4.2.3 Schwartz’s value theory .............................................................................. 103
4.2.3.1 Self-transcendence ..................................................................................... 105
4.2.3.2 Conservatism .............................................................................................. 108
4.2.3.3 Self-enhancement ....................................................................................... 112
4.2.3.4 Openness-to-change ................................................................................... 117
4.3 Behaviours .................................................................................................. 120
4.4 Summary .................................................................................................... 124

CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................. 126
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................................... 126
5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................. 126
5.1 The philosophy of research ......................................................................... 126
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5.1.1 Positivism .................................................................................................... 131
5.1.2 Post positivism ............................................................................................ 132
5.1.3 Constructivism ............................................................................................ 132
5.1.4 Critical theory .............................................................................................. 133
5.1.5 Pragmatism ................................................................................................. 134
5.2 Research methods ...................................................................................... 134
5.2.1 Qualitative methods .................................................................................... 137
5.2.2 Quantitative methods .................................................................................. 138
5.2.3 Emic and etic approaches for ecotourism research ..................................... 139
5.2.4 Primary versus secondary data ................................................................... 140
5.3 The research participants ............................................................................ 140
5.3.1 Local communities ...................................................................................... 141
5.3.2 NGOs and research institutions................................................................... 141
5.3.3 Sebangau National Park and ecotourism management ............................... 141
5.3.4 Domestic and foreign tourists ...................................................................... 142
5.3.5 Infrastructure providers ............................................................................... 142
5.3.6 Government ................................................................................................ 142
5.4 Data collection methods .............................................................................. 143
5.4.1 Phase one: Interviews ................................................................................. 143
5.4.2 Phase two: Focus Group Discussion (FGD) ................................................ 147
5.4.3 Phase three: Questionnaire ......................................................................... 149
5.4.3.1. Pre-Test Instrument and Pilot Survey .......................................................... 150
5.4.3.2 Population and sample ................................................................................ 151
5.5 Analysis and data presentation ................................................................... 152
5.5.1 Qualitative data analysis and presentation .................................................. 153
5.5.2 Quantitative data analysis and presentation ................................................ 155
5.6 Methodological limitations ........................................................................... 156
5.7 Ethical considerations ................................................................................. 156
5.8 Research credibility ..................................................................................... 157
5.9 Summary .................................................................................................... 158

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CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................ 160
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................... 160
6.0 Introduction ................................................................................................. 160
6.1 Phase 1: The values espoused by the actors and the resulting
perceptions and behaviour .......................................................................... 161
6.1.1 Part A: Analysis of values............................................................................ 161
6.1.2 Actors classification based on interest......................................................... 164
6.1.2.1 Conservation actors .................................................................................... 166
6.1.2.2 General actors ............................................................................................ 179
6.1.2.3 Ecotourism actors ....................................................................................... 184
6.1.2.4 Tourism actors ............................................................................................ 188
6.1.3 Actors classification based on authority ....................................................... 194
6.1.4 Actors classification based on institution ..................................................... 196
6.1.5 Actors classification based on the strength of influence on the Sebangau
National Park management ......................................................................... 199
6.1.6 The highest score of each value.................................................................. 201
6.1.7 The lowest score of each value ................................................................... 203
6.1.8 The most important value of each actor ...................................................... 205
6.1.9 The least important value of each actor ....................................................... 207
6.1.10 The circle structure of actor’s most important values ................................... 210
6.1.11 The rule of values distance between actors ................................................ 213
6.1.12 Part B: Analysis of perceptions and behaviours .......................................... 214
6.1.13 Problem-solving behaviour .......................................................................... 214
6.1.14 Communication behaviour ........................................................................... 215
6.1.15 Observation behaviour ................................................................................ 219
6.1.16 Moving behaviour ........................................................................................ 219
6.1.17 Thought behaviour (perception) .................................................................. 222
6.1.18 Values and behaviours summary ................................................................ 225
6.2 Phase 2: The influence of values and behaviours on the development of
ecotourism policy ........................................................................................ 228
6.2.1 Focus group discussion results ................................................................... 230
6.2.2 Phase 1 and 2 summary ............................................................................. 233
6.3 Phase 3: The theoretical relationship strength between values and
beliefs as well as perceptions ...................................................................... 235
6.3.1 Quantitative analysis of tourists’ perceptions ............................................... 238
6.3.2 Quantitative analysis of tourists’ beliefs with respect to nature .................... 239
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6.3.3 Quantitative analysis on tourists’ values ...................................................... 241
6.3.4 The theoretical strength test of the relationship between values and
behaviours .................................................................................................. 249
6.3.4.1 The ANCOVA test results ............................................................................ 249
6.3.4.2 ANCOVA’s results: Discussion .................................................................... 253
6.4 The correlation of qualitative and quantitative analysis results .................... 255
6.5 Summary .................................................................................................... 257

CHAPTER SEVEN ......................................................................................... 259
CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH ........... 259
7.0 Introduction ................................................................................................. 259
7.1 Thesis summary .......................................................................................... 260
7.2 Thesis objectives: Review ........................................................................... 262
7.2.1 The values espoused by actors in Sebangau National Park ........................ 263
7.2.2 The perceptions and behaviours performed by actors, based on the
values espoused. ........................................................................................ 263
7.2.3 The Implications for the success of the ecotourism policy-making
process in Sebangau National Park, and, if relevant for protected area /
national parks management more general? ................................................ 264
7.3 Contribution of the study ............................................................................. 265
7.3.1 Contribution to knowledge and methodologies ............................................ 265
7.3.2 Contribution to policy ................................................................................... 266
7.4 Recommendations ...................................................................................... 267
7.4.1 Recommendations for Sebangau National Park .......................................... 267
7.4.2 Recommendations for national parks in general .......................................... 268
7.5 Future research ........................................................................................... 269
7.6 Study limitations .......................................................................................... 269
7.7 Final thoughts ............................................................................................. 270

REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 271
APPENDICES ................................................................................................. 357

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Definitions of tourists ................................................................................................... 2
Table 1.2: International tourist arrivals and receipts, 1950-2013 ................................................. 2
Table 2.1: The PA categories system advocated by IUCN since 1995 ..................................... 15
Table 2.2: The dimensions of a national park as a protected area by IUCN ............................. 16
Table 2.3: The differences between International, UK and South Africa National Parks ........... 17
Table 2.4: IUCN governance types and subcategories .............................................................. 28
Table 2.5: The contrast between Scientific Based Management (Blueprint) and Holostic
Based Management (Prosesses) ........................................................................... 30
Table 2.6: The alternative of local comunity participation in the management of National
Parks ....................................................................................................................... 33
Table 2.7: National Parks in Indonesia ....................................................................................... 43
Table 2.8: Successful and unsuccessful ecotourism projects .................................................... 54
Table 2.9: Factors of success or failure in ecotourism projects ................................................. 54
Table 2.10: The contributon of tourism sector in foreign exchange earning, 2009-2013
(US$ million) ........................................................................................................... 58
Table 2.11: The distribution of political regions in Borneo ......................................................... 62
Table 5.1: Comparison of research paradigms ........................................................................ 128
Table 5.2: Interview frameworks .............................................................................................. 145
Table 6.1: SVS items ................................................................................................................ 162
Table 6.2: List of respondents who failed in the data cleaning process ................................... 163
Table 6.3: Actors classification based on interest orientation .................................................. 164
Table 6.4: The values espoused based on actors’ interest ...................................................... 165
Table 6.5: Sebangau National Park (SNP) resorts .................................................................. 169
Table 6.6: The values of Sebangau National Park Office ........................................................ 170
Table 6.7: The values of WWF and Sebangau National Park Office ....................................... 171
Table 6.8: The values of Central Kalimantan Natural Resource Conservation Authority,
WWF and Sebangau National Park Office ........................................................... 172
Table 6.9: The values of Central Kalimantan Environmental Agency, Central Kalimantan
Natural Resource Conservation Authority, WWF and Sebangau National
Park Office ............................................................................................................ 174
Table 6.10: The values of OUTROP, Pulang Pisau Regency Forest Agency, Central
Kalimantan Environmental Agency, Central Kalimantan Natural Resource
Conservation Authority, WWF and Sebangau National Park Office .................... 177
Table 6.11: The values of local people from Kereng Bangkirei................................................ 181
Table 6.12: The values of local people from Sebangau Kuala and Kereng Bangkirei. ............ 182
Table 6.13: The values of Pulang Pisau Regency Government, Sebangau Kuala
Resident and Kereng Bangkirei Resident ............................................................ 183
Table 6.14: The values of Researcher ..................................................................................... 185
Table 6.15: The values of SMG and Researcher. .................................................................... 187
Table 6.16: The values of Central Kalimantan Tourism and Culture Agency .......................... 189
Table 6.17: The values of Katingan Tourism Agency and Central Kalimantan Tourism &
Culture Agency ..................................................................................................... 190
Table 6.18: The values of Palangka Raya Tourism Agency, Katingan Tourism Agency
and Central Kalimantan Tourism and Culture Agency ......................................... 191
Table 6.19: The Values of Swiss-Bell Danum, Palangka Raya Tourism Agency, Katingan
Tourism Agency and Central Kalimantan Tourism & Culture Agency .................. 193
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