The human species : an introduction to biological anthropology

526 Pages·2010·33.77 MB·English

by  John Relethford

EIgHTH
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EIgHTH EdITIoN
The Human Species provides a comprehensive approach to biological anthropology, with an emphasis on the rela- T
tionship between biology and culture, behavior in an evolutionary context, and the human species in its context within
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the primate order. The Human Species addresses the major questions that concern biological anthropologists: What are
humans? How are we similar to and different from other animals? Where are our origins? How did we evolve? Are we E THE HUMAN
still evolving? How are we different from one another? What does the future hold for the human species?
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The chapters on genetics and population genetics have been thoroughly revised to increase student comprehension. N

The chapters on primate biology and behavior have been restructured to provide a more cohesive discussion of
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primate behavior.
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The chapter on the evolution of the genus Homo has been split into two separate chapters; the first focuses on the
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origin of the genus Homo and the initial dispersion out of Africa (Homo habilis and Homo erectus), and the second An Introduction to Biological Anthropology
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looks at the evolution of later humans, specifically Homo heidelbergensis and the Neandertals.
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New sections have been added on the evolution of larger brains and the evolution of language in the genus Homo. E
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New information has been included on a variety of subjects, including the evolution of Miocene apes, diet in robust
australopiths, the origin of bipedalism, new finds of Homo habilis, the new female Homo erectus pelvis, Neandertal
dNA, the origin of modern human cranial anatomy, geography and the population history of Ireland, and new data on A
lactase persistence, among others. n
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WHAT PEoPlE ARE SAyINg ABoUT THe Human SpecieS tio AL
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“Relethford’s text is up-to-date, well illustrated, clearly written, and provides many valuable examples of not merely io 03
what—but how—biological anthropologists think.” lo 80
—Annalisa Alvrus, Mesa Community College gica 15 07
“Relethford’s text provides a balanced overview of the diversity within physical anthropology with an up-to-date point of l A /2
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view, and the sections on genetics in particular are a strength and among the best for an introductory-level audience in n /0
this field.” thr 9 C
—Barbara Hall, Riverside Community College op Y
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“This is, without a doubt, the best introductory textbook for Physical Anthropology students. It is written in a clear and g M
e ngaging style an d covers all the b asics.” —dennis o’Neil, Palomar College Ry AG Y
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E I G H T H E D I T I O N
THE HUMAN SPECIES
An Introduction
to Biological Anthropology
JOHN H. RELETHFORD
State University of New York
College at Oneonta
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This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 CCI/CCI 0 9
ISBN: 978-0-07-353101-4
MHID: 0-07-353101-4
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Cover images: Multiethnic Group of Men and Women: © Digital Vision/Getty Images; DNA: © Thomas
Northcut/Lifesize/Getty Images; Horses on the walls of a cave: © Sisse Brimberg/National Geographic/Getty
Images; Skulls of Neanderthal, Homo erectus, Australopithecus, Homo sapiens, Chimpanzee skull and human skull,
artifacts and hunting tools made of flint: © Colin Keates/Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images
Credits: The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the
copyright page.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Relethford, John.
The human species : an introduction to biological anthropology / John H. Relethford.—8th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-0-07-353101-4 (alk. paper)
1. Physical anthropology. I. Title.
GN60.R39 2010
5 73—dc22 2 009021382
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a
Web site does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does
not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
www.mhhe.com
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BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xiii
PART I Evolutionary Background 1
1 Biological Anthropology and Evolution 3
2 Human Genetics 31
3 Microevolution 65
4 The Evolution and Classification of Species 91
PART II Our Place in Nature 111
5 The Primates 113
6 Primate Behavior and Ecology 145
7 The Human Species 177
iii
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iv Brief Contents
PART III Our Origins 201
8 Paleoanthropology 203
9 Primate Origins and Evolution 227
10 The Beginnings of Human Evolution 247
11 The Origin of the Genus Homo 283
12 The Evolution of Archaic Humans 305
13 The Origin of Modern Humans 329
PART IV Our Diversity 355
14 The Study of Human Variation 357
15 Recent Microevolution of Human Populations 381
16 Human Adaptation 407
17 The Biological Impact of Agriculture
and Civilization 431
EPILOGUE The Future of Our Species 459
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1
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CONTENTS
Preface xiii
Walkthrough xviii
PART I Evolutionary Background 1
1 Biological Anthropology and Evolution 3
What Is Anthropology? 4
Biology and Culture 4
Variation 5
Evolution 6
Adaptation 6
The Subfields of Anthropology 7
Science and Evolution 9
Characteristics of Science 9
SPECIAL TOPIC: Biological Anthropologists at Work 10
The Development of Evolutionary Theory 14
Evidence for Evolution 21
Science and Religion 22
Summary 27
Supplemental Readings 27
Virtual Explorations 28
v
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vvii CCoonntteennttss
2 Human Genetics 31
Molecular Genetics 31
DNA: The Genetic Code 31
Chromosomes and Genes 35
The Human Genome Project 39
Mendelian Genetics 40
Genotypes and Phenotypes 41
Predicting Offspring Distributions 44
Chromosomes and Inheritance 46
The Genetics of Complex Traits 49
Mutations 52
The Evolutionary Significance of Mutations 53
Types of Mutations 53
SPECIAL TOPIC: PCR and Ancient DNA 55
Rates of Mutations 56
Summary 56
Supplemental Readings 57
Virtual Explorations 57
Cell Biology: A Review 59
3 Microevolution 65
Population Genetics 65
What Is a Population? 65
Genotype Frequencies and Allele Frequencies 66
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium 67
The Evolutionary Forces 70
Mutation 70
Natural Selection 71
Genetic Drift 76
Gene Flow 81
Interaction of the Evolutionary Forces 84
SPECIAL TOPIC: Tay-Sachs Disease: Genetic Drift or
Natural Selection? 86
Summary 87
Supplemental Readings 87
Virtual Explorations 88
4 The Evolution and Classification of Species 91
The Birth and Death of Species 91
What Is a Species? 92
Species Change 93
Speciation 94
Adaptive Radiation 96
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Contents vii
The Tempo and Mode of Macroevolution 96
Extinctions and Mass Extinctions 97
Misconceptions about Evolution 98
The Nature of Selection 98
Structure, Function, and Evolution 100
SPECIAL TOPIC: Science Fiction and Orthogenesis 101
Classification of Species 102
Taxonomic Categories 104
Methods of Classification 104
Approaches to Classification 107
Summary 108
Supplemental Readings 109
Virtual Explorations 109
PART II Our Place in Nature 111
5 The Primates 113
Characteristics of Mammals 114
Reproduction 115
Temperature Regulation 117
Teeth 118
Skeletal Structure 120
Behavior 120
Primate Characteristics 121
The Skeleton 122
Vision 124
The Brain and Behavior 125
Primate Diversity 126
Primate Suborders 127
The Monkeys 131
The Hominoids 134
SPECIAL TOPIC: Primates in Danger 141
Summary 141
Supplemental Readings 142
Virtual Explorations 142
6 Primate Behavior and Ecology 145
Primate Behavioral Ecology 145
Reproductive Strategies 146
Growing Up 151
Social Groups 151
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viii Contents
SPECIAL TOPIC: Social Structure and Testes
Size in Primates 152
Social Behaviors 153
Case Studies of Primate Behavior 157
Prosimians and Monkeys 157
The Asian Apes 161
The African Apes 165
Summary 173
Supplemental Readings 173
Virtual Explorations 173
7 The Human Species 177
Characteristics of Living Humans 178
Distribution and Environment 178
Brain Size and Structure 178
Bipedalism 180
Canine Teeth 185
Sex and Reproduction 185
Social Structure 185
The Human Life Cycle 186
Prenatal Growth 186
The Pattern of Human Postnatal Growth 187
The Evolution of Human Growth 190
Menopause 190
Is Human Behavior Unique? 191
Tool Use and Manufacture 191
SPECIAL TOPIC: Humans and Apes—What Genes Are
Different? 192
Do Apes Have Culture? 194
Language Capabilities 195
Summary 199
Supplemental Readings 199
Virtual Explorations 199
PART III Our Origins 201
8 Paleoanthropology 203
Dating the Past 203
Relative Dating Methods 204
Chronometric Dating Methods 205
Reconstructing the Past 209
Interpreting Fossils 209
Interpreting Behavior 214
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Contents ix
Life before the Primates 218
The Origin of Life 218
SPECIAL TOPIC: A Perspective on Geologic Time 219
Vertebrate Evolution 220
Summary 222
Supplemental Readings 223
Virtual Explorations 223
9 Primate Origins and Evolution 227
Early Primate Evolution 227
Overview of Early Primate Evolution 228
Primate Origins 228
Anthropoid Origins 233
Evolution of the Miocene Hominoids 235
The Diversity of Miocene Hominoids 235
The Fossil Evidence 236
SPECIAL TOPIC: The Giant Ape 239
The Genetic Evidence 242
Summary 244
Supplemental Readings 244
Virtual Explorations 244
10 The Beginnings of Human Evolution 247
Overview of Human Evolution 248
The Fossil Evidence of Early Hominin Evolution 250
The First Hominins 254
Primitive Hominins 257
Hominin Diversity 263
Evolutionary Trends 270
Evolutionary Relationships 270
SPECIAL TOPIC: The Piltdown Hoax 271
The Origin of Bipedalism 274
Summary 279
Supplemental Readings 280
Virtual Explorations 280
11 The Origin of the Genus Homo 283
Homo Habilis 284
Physical Characteristics 285
Cultural Behavior 286
More Than One Species? 287
Evolutionary Relationships 287
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