THE HAZARDS TO MAN OF NUCLEAR AND ALLIED RADIATIONS A Second Report to the ...

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INIS-XA-N--258
MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
THE HAZARDS TO MAN OF
NUCLEAR
AND ALLIED RADIATIONS
A Second Report
to the Medical Research Council
Presented to Parliament by the Lord President of the Council and
Minister for Science
by Command of Her Majesty
December, 1960
LONDON
HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE
PRICE 7s. Od. NET
Cnind. 1225
MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
The Right Hon. the Earl of Limerick, G.B.E., K.C.B., D.S.O. (Chairman)
E. F. Collingwood, C.B.E., D.Sc. (Treasurer)
Sir Hugh Linstead, O.B.E., LL.D., F.P.S., M.P.
Professor C. H. Stuart-Harris, M.D., F.R.C.P.
Professor A. A. Miles, C.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.P.
Professor E. J. Wayne, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.C.P.
Professor B. W. Windeyer, M.B., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., D.M.R.E., F.F.R.
Professor R. H. S. Thompson, D.M., B.Sc.
Professor A. L. Hodgkin, M.A., F.R.S.
Professor R. Milnes Walker, M.S., F.R.C.S.
Professor T. Crawford, B.Sc., M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.F.P.S.G.
Professor W. M. Millar, M.D.
Sir Harold Hinsworth, K.C.B., M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. (Secrefary)
COMMITTEE APPOINTED BY THE MEDICAL RESEARCH
COUNCIL TO REPORT ON THE HAZARDS TO MAN OF
NUCLEAR AND ALLIED RADIATIONS
Sir Harold Himsworth, K.C.B., M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. (Chairman)
E. E. Pochin, C.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.P. (Vice-Chairman)
Sir John Cockcroft, O.M., K.C.B., C.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor A. Haddow, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor A. Bradford Hill, C.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.
J. F. Loutit, C.B.E., D.M., F.R.C.P.
W. G. Marley, O.B.E., Ph.D.
Professor K. Mather, C.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor W. V. Mayneord, C.B.E., D.Sc., F.Inst.P.
Professor P. B. Medawar, C.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor J. S. Mitchell, C.BE., M.D., F.R.C.P., Ph.D., D.M.R., F.F.R.,
F.R.S.
Professor L. S. Penrose, M.D., F.R.S.
F. G. Spear, M.D., D.M.R.E., F.F.R.
Professor J, R. Squire, M.D., F.R.C.P.
A'. L Stevenso4- M.D., F.R.C.P., D.P.H.
Professor C. H. (cid:1)addington, C.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.S.
Professor B. W. Wirid(cid:1)yer, M.B., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., D.M.R.E., F.F.R.
Assessor (AgriculturalJ (cid:1)esearch Council): E. D. T. Jourdain, B.A.
Others serving during period covered
The late Sir Ernest Rock Carling, F.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.F.R.
Sir Edward Salisbury, C.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Secretariat
Scienti6c Staff HeadquartersS taff
W. M. Court Brown, O.B.E., B. S. Lush, M.D., M.R.C.P.
M.B., B.Sc., F.F.R. R. C. Norton, M.A., M.B.,
D.Obst.R.C.O.G.
Contents
Page
1. INTRODUCTION ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... I
THE TYPES OF ADIATION AND THEIR BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ... ... ... 5
Sources of radiation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5
Types of radiation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5
Effects of radiation on living tissues ... ... ... ... ... 6
Effects of variations in dose-rate ... ... ... ... ... 7
The concept of a 'threshold' dose of radiation ... ... ... 7
Age and radiosensitivity ... ... ... ... ... ... 8
T-14E FFECTS OF ADIATION ON THE HEALTH OF THE IDIVIDUAL ... ... 9
Early effects ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9
Delayed effects ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9
'Me leukaernias ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10
National incidence ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10
Regional variations in incidence ... ... ... ... ... 10
Incidence of leukaemia following exposure to radiation ... ... I I
Time limit on induction of leukaemia following radiation ... ... I I
Experimental induction of leukaemia ... ... ... ... 12
Effect of exposure of the foetus during diagnosticr adiology ... 12
Cancer ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 12
Non-malignant effects ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 13
Developmental effects following irradiationd uring pregnancy ... 13
Fertility ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 13
Longevity ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14
Cataract ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14
Other effects ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14
IV. THE GENETIC EFFECTS OF ADIATION ... ... ... ... ... 15
Changes in the hereditary material ... ... ... ... ... 15
Relationship between 'spontaneous' and 'induced' changes in the
hereditary material ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15
Chemically induced mutation ... ... ... ... ... ... 16
Relationship between radiation dose-rate andnumberof gene mutations
induced ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16
Possible differential sensitivity of foetal and adult sex cells to induction
of gene mutations ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 17
iii
Page
Chromosomal aberrations and radiation ... ... ... ... ... 17
The effects on the offspring of parents exposed to radiation ... ... 17
The effects of radiation on populations ... ... ... ... ... 18
V. EMSTING AND FORESEEABLE LEVELS OF EXPOSURE TO RADIATION ... ... 20
Introduction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20
Radiation from natural sources ... ... ... ... . I ... 20
Externalr adiationf rom cosmic rays ... ... ... ... ... 20
Radioactive materialsp roduced by cosmic radiation ... ... 20
External radiationf rom natural terrestrials ources ... ... ... 21
Internal radiationf rom natural radioactive constituents of the body 22
Radiation from the appurtenances of civilisation ... ... ... 23
Medical radiology ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 23
Radioactive waste ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 24
Miscellaneous sources ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 25
X-ray fluoroscopy for shoe-fitting ... ... ... ... ... 25
Luminous markings in clocks and watches ... ... ... ... 25
Miscellaneous uses of radioactive materials ... ... ... ... 26
Television sets ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26
Cosmic radiation in aircraft ... ... ... ... ... ... 26
Occupational exposure to radiation ... ... ... ... ... 27
Control of occupational exposure ... ... ... ... ... 27
Doses received as a result of occupationale xposure ... . I ... 27
Genetically effective doses from occupational exposure ... ... 28
Accidents in nuclear reactors ... ... ... ... .., ... 29
Contamination by world-wide fall-out from nuclear explosions ... 29
Distribution of debris from nuclear explosions ... ... ... 29
Stratospheric residence time ... ... ... ... ... ... 30
Variations in the rate and Pature of fall-out ... ... ... ... 3
External doses from deposited material ... ... ... ... 3
Inhalation of radioactive material ... ... ... ... ... 32
Radioactive particles ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 32
Strontium 90, other fission products and plutonium 239 ... ... 33
Ingestion of products from nuclear explosions ... ... ... 33
Strontium 90 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 33
Caesium 137 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35
Iodine 131 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36
Carbon 14 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36
iv
Page
Summary of present and foreseeable doses to tissues ... ... ... 37
Doses to gonads ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37
Doses in bone and bone marrow ... ... ... ... ... 37
Possible doses from fall-out under conditions of continued weapon
testing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 38
Nuclear warfare ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 38
VI. ASSESSNENT OF THE HAZARDS OF EXPOSURE TO RADIATION ... ... ... 39
Somatic and genetic effects of radiation ... ... ... ... ... 39
Early effects on the individual. .. ... ... ... ... ... 39
Delayed effects on the individual ... ... ... ... ... 39
Genetic effects ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 39
Permissible doses of radiation ... ... ... ... ... ... 40
Generalprinciples ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40
Permissible doses for workers occupationally exposed to radiation 41
Permissibled oses for fractions of the population ... ... ... 42
Permissible dose for the generalp opulation ... ... ... 42
Permissibled oses to the general public following accidents in nuclear
reactors ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 43
Medical radiology ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 43
Occupational exposure ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 44
Radioactive waste ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45
Miscellaneous sources of radiation ... ... ... ... ... 45
Gencral conclusions on hazards from civil uses of radiation ... ... 45
Test explosions of nuclear devices ... ... ... ... ... ... 46
General consideration of the somatic and genetic effects of fall-out ... 46
Strontium 90 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 46
Permissible levels ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 46
Warning level ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 47
Existing and foreseeable levels from explosions which have already
occurred ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 48
Possible doses from fall-out under conditions of continued weapon
testing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 49
Estimates of te possible effects of fall-out on populations ... 49
Wartime hazards ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 49
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51
V
APPENDICES Page
A. Changes in te National Mortality from Leukaemia
W. M. COURT BRowN and R. DOLL 52
B. The Leukaemogenic Effect of Whole-body Irradiation of the Mouse:
Experimental Work at the Radiobiological. Research Unit, Harwell
R. H. MOLE 56
C. Recent Information on the Genetical Effects of Radiation:
A Bibliography and Notes
L. S. PENROSE and A. C. STEVENSON 59
D. Gamma-ray Dose-rates to Human Tissues from Natural External
Sources in Great Britain
F. W. SPIERS 66
E. Naturally-occurring Alpha Activity W. V. MAYNEORD 73
F. Changes in the Levels of Radioactive Fall-out and the Resulting
Radiation Doses to Man in te United Kingdom
J. F. LouTiT, W. G. MARLEY, W. V. MAYNEoRD and R. S. RUSSELL 80
Annexe: Possible Levels of Fall-out Under Conditions of Continued
Weapon Testing
G. W. DOLPHIN, J. F. LOUTIT, W. G. MARLEY,
W. V. MAYNEORD and R. S. RUSSELL 109
G. Occupational Exposure to Radiation in the United Kingdom and its
Contribution to the Genetically Effective Dose
W. BrNKs and W. G. MARLEY 120
H. The Nuclear Reactor Accident at Windscale-October, 1957:
Environmental Aspects
J. F. Lou-riT, W. G. MARLEY and R. S. RUSSELL 129
J. Maximum Permissible Dietary Contamination after the Accidental
Release of Radioactive Material from a Nuclear Reactor
COMMUTEE ON PROTECTION AGAINST IONIZING RADIATIONS 140
K. Report on Emergency Exposure to External Radiation
COMI&TTEE ON PROTECTION AGAINST IONIZING RADIATIONS 146
L. Comments on the Recommendations of the International Commission
on Radiological Protection
COMNUTTEE ON PROTECTION AGAINST IONIZING RADIATIONS 152
Vi
Medical Research Council,
38, Old Queen Street,
Westminster,
London, S.W. 1.
To THE IJGHT HONOURABLE VISCOUNT HAILSHAM, Q.C.,
LORD PRESIDENT OF TfIE COUNCIL AND MINISTER FOR SCIENCE
My LRD,
In accordance with your request that the Medical Research
Council should keep under close and continuous review the possible
hazards to man of nuclear and allied radiations, the committee
which the Medical Research Council set up in 1955 to advise them
in this field have prepared a second report. Tis report has been
accepted by the Council and I have been authorized to transmit it
to you with a view to its presentation to Parliament. It is the wish
of the Council that, in so doing, I should express their high
appreciation of the care, thought and ability which all members
of the Committee have devoted so freely to their most ifficult and
important task.
I have the honour to be, my Lord,
Your Lordship's obedient Servant,
LIMERICK,
Chairman,
Medical Research Council.
December, 1960.
Vii

THE HAZARDS TO MAN OF NUCLEAR AND AIED
RADIATIONS
A SECOND REPORT TO THE MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1. In March, 1955, the Prime Minister requested that the Medical Research
Council should appoint an independent committee to report on the medical
and genetic aspects of nuclear radiation and in the following month the Council
appointed us members of such a committee, under the chairmanship of
Sir Harold Himsworth, to undertake this task. In June, 1956, our Report to
the Medical Research Council (Cmd. 9780) was presented to Parliament by
the Lord President of the Council.
2. In the following months our Genetics Panel met twice for the primary
purpose of putting forward further recommendations for research and in
June, 1958, we ourselves, at the Council's request, met again in full session to
prepare a statement (Cnind. 508) on the Report of the United Nations Scientific
Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. During the whole of this period
the subject has been kept under regular review by various standing committees
of the Council. We ourselves met again in November, 1959, following a request
from the Medical Research Council that we should prepare a further considered
statement of the position in this field and the report which follows is the rsult
of this request.
3. We have suffered the loss of three members of our committee since we
were first called together. A short time after the publication of our earlier
report the death occurred of Sir Lionel Whitby, Regius Professor of Physic in
the University of Cambridge and in 1959 Sir Edward Salisbury, who had
earlier retired from the directorship of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
resigned from the committee. In their separate ways both had lent valuable
help in the preparation of our first report and their absence has been much
felt on this occasion. The death has also occurred of Sir Ernest Rock Carling
who, as a pioneer in the use of radium and as a member of the Radium Com-
mission and Trust, held a very special position in the field of radiology both
in this country and abroad. His unrivalled experience was of immense value
to us and we have greatly missed his wise counsel in the final stages of the
preparation of this report. Sir Ernest was present at one of our meetings only
a short time before his death on the 15th July, 1960.
4. Dr. E. E. Pochin, Chairman of the Council's Committee on Protection
against Ionizing Radiations, has joined us since our first report was published
and, recently, has become our Vice-Chairman. Dr. A. C. Stevenson and
Dr. W. G. Marley have also been appointed to our committee and we have
welcomed the help which they and Dr. Pochin have given to us.
A2 I
2 HAZARDS OF NUCLEAR AND ALLIED RADIATIONS
5. Throughout the course of our work and in the preparation of this further
report we have been greatly indebted to Dr. B. S. Lush of the Council's
headquarters staff. We are grateful also to Dr. W. M. Court Brown of the
Council's scientific staff and to Dr. R. C. Norton, a member of the staff of the
Council's headquarters office, for the help which they, too, have given as
members of our secretariat.
6. At the same time that our earlier report was published, the United
States National Academy of Sciences published their own assessment of the
position in this field; this, like our own report, dealt with the subject primarily
from a national point of view. As mentioned earlier, the United Nations
Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, which had been
set up by the General Assembly of the United Nations to consider the situation
from a world-wide point of view, reported in 1958, and within the past two
years a number of other reports have appeared. In the light of these various
assessments and of the results of recent research and in view also of the extensive
series of measurements and the new data on radiation levels that are now
available, it was clear that a further appraisal of the position would be timely.
7. When we last reported, the information available on the amount and
distribution of radioactive fall-out from nuclear weapon explosions was meagre.
Since then, however, the facilities available for measuring constituents of fall-
out in air, water, food, herbage and other materials have been greatly extended.
The radiochemical facilities of the Atomic Energy Authority have been expanded
and a new Radiobiological Laboratory has been set up by the Agricultural
Research Council. In addition, a group of scientists expert in the different
branches of this work (the Managing Sub-Committee on Monitoring) has
been appointed jointly by the Council, the Agricultural Research Council and
the Development Commission to plan and supervise the collection of samples
of materials for measurement of their content of strontium 90. The results of
this comprehensive monitoring programme have not only thrown much light
on the passage of materials from fall-out into the human body, but have
provided a good estimate of the present and foreseeable average concentrations
of strontium 90 in food and bone in this country. In addition we now have
much information both from this country and elsewhere on the distribution
of radioactive materials in the stratosphere and in fall-out generally.
8. Similarly in 1956 our knowledge of the magnitude of the dose of radiation
received by te general population from diagnostic radiology was based on
a single limited survey. However, following our recommendation about the
desirability of reviewing present practice in medical diagnostic radiology,
the Ministry of Health and the Department of Health for Scotland set up a
committee, under the chairmanship of Lord Adrian, to undertake ts task.
This committee have published two reports which have added greatly to
knowledge on these matters and they will, we understand, be reporting further
on the remaining aspects of their work. We are greatly indebted to the committee
-and to the Ministry of Health-for advance information about their findings.
9. When we reported in 1956 no figures had been agreed for the averageC,
dose of radiation which might, without giving rise to concern, be received by
the general population and, although we expressed certain views on the matter,
we did not feel justified in naming any specific figure. Since then the Council's