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About the Authors A science librarian for more than thirty years,James Bobickis Department Head in the Science and Technology Department at the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. He has master’s degrees in biology and library science. Naomi Balaban, a science reference librarian for fifteen years, also works at the Carnegie Library. She coedited, with James Bobick, The Handy Science Answer Book and has a background in linguistics and a master’s degree in library science. A college biology teacher for fifteen years, Sandra Bobickcurrently teaches general biology and genetics at the Community College of Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, and coordinates a summer “Biotechnology Boot Camp” for middle school girls. She holds master’s degrees in biology and education and a doctoral degree in science education. Laurel Bridges Robertshas been a college biology instructor since 1992 and cur- rently teaches introductory biology and human physiology at the University of Pitts- burgh. She holds both master’s and doctoral degrees in behavioral ecology and has research experience in experimental pathology and molecular biology. The Handy Answer Book® Series The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents) The Handy Biology Answer Book The Handy Bug Answer Book The Handy Dinosaur Answer Book The Handy Geography Answer Book The Handy Geology Answer Book The Handy History Answer Book The Handy Ocean Answer Book The Handy Physics Answer Book The Handy Politics Answer Book The Handy Presidents Answer Book The Handy Religion Answer Book The Handy Science Answer Book The Handy Space Answer Book The Handy Sports Answer Book T]he Handy Weather Answer Book Please visit us at visibleink.com. THE HANDY BIOLOGY ANSWER BOOK THE HANDY BIOLOGY ANSWER BOOK James Bobick, Naomi Balaban, Sandra Bobick, and Laurel Bridges Roberts Detroit THE Copyright 2004 by Visible Ink Press® This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copy- HANDY right laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws. BIOLOGY No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in connection with a review written for inclusion in a magazine or ANSWER newspaper. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. BOOK Visible Ink Press® 43311 Joy Road #414 Canton, MI 48187-2075 Visible Ink Press is a registered trademark of Visible Ink Press LLC. Most Visible Ink Press books are available at special quantity discounts when purchased in bulk by corporations, organizations, or groups. Cus- tomized printings, special imprints, messages, and excerpts can be pro- duced to meet your needs. For more information, contact Special Markets Director, Visible Ink Press, at www.visibleink.com. Art Director: Mary Claire Krzewinski Typesetting: The Graphix Group ISBN 1-57859-150-3 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The handy biology answer book / James Bobick ... [et al.].—1st ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 1-57859-150-3 1. Biology—Miscellanea. I. Bobick, James E. QH349.H36 2004 570—dc22 2004017808 Printed in the United States of America All rights reserved 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents ix INTRODUCTION xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii PHOTO AND ILLUSTRATION CREDITS xv MILESTONES OF MAJOR EVENTS IN BIOLOGY CHEMISTRY FOR BACTERIA, VIRUSES, AND BIOLOGY … 1 PROTISTS … 85 Basics … Molecules … Metabolic Pathways Introduction and Historical Background … … Enzymes … Applications Bacteria … Viruses … Single-celled Organisms … Applications CELL STRUCTURE … 31 FUNGI … 125 Introduction and Historical Background … Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells … Introduction and Historical Background … Organization within Cells … Nucleus … Structure … Function … Mushrooms and Cytoplasm … Cell Wall and Plasma Edible Fungi … Lichens … Yeasts … Membrane … Cilia and Flagella … Applications Miscellaneous PLANT DIVERSITY … 159 CELL FUNCTION … 55 Introduction and Historical Background … Basic Functions … Cell Jobs … Cellular Bryophytes … Ferns and Related Plants … Specialization … Applications Gymnosperms … Angiosperms (Flowering Plants) … Applications vii PLANT STRUCTURE AND GENETICS … 385 FUNCTION … 197 Mendelian Genetics … New Genetics … Plant Cells and Tissues … Seeds … Shoots Human Genome Project … Applications and Leaves … Roots … Soils … Applications BIOTECHNOLOGY ANIMAL DIVERSITY … 233 AND GENETIC ENGINEERING … 413 Introduction and Historical Background … Sponges and Coelenterates … Worms … Introduction and Historical Background … Mollusks … Arthropods … Echinoderms … Methods … Applications Chordates EVOLUTION … 445 ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND Introduction and Historical Background … FUNCTION … 277 Darwin-Wallace Theory … Post-Darwinian Introduction and Historical Background … Evolution … Evolutionary History of Life on Tissue … Organs and Organ Systems … Earth … Applications Digestion … Respiration … Circulation … Excretory System … Endocrine System … Nervous System … Immune System … ENVIRONMENT … 477 Reproduction … Skeletal System … Environmental Cycles and Related Concepts Locomotion … Biomes and Related Concepts … Extinct and Endangered Plants and Animals … Conservation, Recycling, and Other ANIMAL BEHAVIOR … 323 Applications Introduction and Historical Background … Learning … Behavioral Ecology … Applications LABORATORY TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES … 513 Scientific Method … Basic Laboratory DNA, RNA, AND Chemistry … Measurement … Microscopy … CHROMOSOMES … 359 Microtechnique … Centrifugation … Introduction and Historical Background … Chromatography … Electrophoresis … DNA … RNA … Genes and Chromosomes … Spectroscopy … X-Ray Diffraction … Nuclear Transcription and Translation Magnetic Resonance and Ultrasound … Methods in Microbial Studies … Methods in Ecological Studies 539 FURTHER READING viii INDEX 553 Introduction F rom the molecular and subcellular level to ecosystems and global conditions, biology holds and demands our attention. The spectacular discoveries and achievements in molecular biology in the last fifty years have created a gene-based medical revolution, with implications from crime-scene testing to stem cell research. The discovery of the structure of DNA (or deoxyribonucleic acid) in 1953 by Dr. James D. Watson and Dr. Francis Crick was one of the great advances in science, providing a universal key to understanding all forms of life. Crick and Watson discovered that DNA consisted of two complementary strands, a structure that solved the mystery of how the genetic materi- al could be copied when a cell divides. Their original research has lead to our decipher- ing of the human genome, which consists of some three billion units of DNA encoded with all the biological information needed to generate and maintain a living person. The Handy Biology Answer Bookexplores the quantum leap in our understanding of biology, answering more than 1,600 questions in plain English on all aspects of human, animal, plant, and microbial biology. In the new millennium, biology contin- ues to generate hot-button medical and political issues, including cloning, stem cell therapy, and genetic manipulation. In this informative book, you’ll find answers to such intriguing questions as: What is cell cloning? What are DNA and RNA? When and how did cells first evolve? Can two blue-eyed people have a brown-eyed child? How serious a disease is influenza? Do overweight children have a greater risk of being overweight adults? What is an atom? Why are some fats “good” and others “bad”? Why do humans need cholesterol? How do northern birds know to fly south in winter? Can the environment determine the sex of an animal? When was the first microscope developed? Easy to use with special appeal to the general science reader and student, Handy Biology is organized in sixteen chapters with 100 illustrations and 150 tables and charts. Handy Biologycovers such topics as cell structure and function, bacteria and viruses, plant and animal diversity, DNA and chromosomes, genetics, biotechnology and genetic engineering, evolution and adaptation, the environment, laboratory tools ix