The Growth of Nationalism in the Sudan under Anglo-Egyptian Rule

314 Pages·2012·1.07 MB·English

Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
University of Oran
Institute of Literature, Languages and Arts

Doctoral Thesis in African Civilization
The Growth of Nationalism
in the Sudan under Anglo-Egyptian
Rule (1899-1956)
Submitted by Under the Supervision of
Fatiha Dani Pr. Badra Lahouel

Board of Examiners:
President: Mrs. L. Moulfi M.C.A., University of Oran
Supervisor: Mrs. B. Lahouel Prof., University of Oran
Examiner: Mr. F. Borsali Prof., University of Adrar
Examiner: Mr. M. Afkir M.C.A., University of Laghouat
Examiner: Mrs. Bedjaoui M.C.A., University of Belabbés
Examiner: Mr. K. Belmekki M.C.A., University of Oran

2012
DEDICATION

You loved us all
With caring eyes
You took it all
Without any gain
Your troubled heart
Feels my pain
All glory to you
Man of Faith
All thrones belong to you
Man of pain
You gave me life
And even more…
To the Memory of my Husband
Abdelkrim Khebouza
I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I want to record a distinctive tribute to my academic supervisor,
Professor Badra Lahouel, who so generously gave of her time to offer help
during the various stages of my doctoral research. I am particularly grateful for
her thoughtful criticisms and attention to detail which saved me from many
errors and which are deeply appreciated.
My special thanks go also to Professor Borsali, my principal
magister thesis examiner, who taught me how to be patient in research, and to
whom I owe personal and intellectual debts.
I am also grateful to all the members of the jury: Dr. Moulfi, Dr.
Afkir, Dr. Bedjaoui and Dr. Belmeki who gave much of their valuable time
while reading, inquiring and commenting on the thesis.

I also wish to express my appreciation and sincere thanks to all my
colleagues, in the English and Translation Departments, whose comments and
searching questions have been of the greatest help to me in preparing this
research work. I have also received generous help and encouragements from
Dr. K. Ghassoul, Dr. W. Boukreris, Dr. A. Mostefaoui and Dr. K. Makhloufi
who so generously gave of their time to discuss various aspects of the subject.
I wish to thank my dearest brother Benchaa whose moral support was a
constant source of inspiration.

II
ABSTRACT

Lord Cromer established the Condominium in 1899 after the defeat of
the Khalifa and the reconquest of the Sudan. From then until the country
became independent in 1956, Britain and Egypt were jointly responsible for
the government of the territory which had been once Egyptian. The
establishment by Britain of the ‘highly effective’ Sudan Political Service
ensured, however, that control was largely in British hands.
The joint responsibility could only result in tense relations between
Britain and Egypt, and although when the Sudan decided on complete
independence rather than some form of union with Egypt, Britain was much
relieved. The latter regretted having to abandon her protégé Southern Sudanese
so soon. On the whole, British administrators viewed with satisfaction their
colonial enterprise in the Sudan with or without the Egyptians, their nominal
co-domini. Nevertheless, if the Sudan’s independence was a source of ‘pride
and anxiety’ for Britain, it was a painful thorn in the flesh of Egypt.
This research traces the evolution of national and political consciousness
in the Sudan under Condominium rule. It chronicles the growth of the major
Sudanese political parties, their alliances and their complicated path to self-
government and self-determination. There is an attempt, all throughout this
research, to survey the events and indicate the major forces which have shaped
Sudanese political history from the Condominium’s inception in 1899 to
Sudan’s independence in 1956.
III
TABLE of CONTENTS
Dedication………………………………………………………………………I
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………..…..II
Abstract……………………………………………………………………….III
Contents………………………………………………………………………VI
Maps and Tables………………………………………………………………V
Glossary………………………………………………………………………VI
Introduction………………………………………………………………….…1
Chapter One: Historical Background: the Early Relations of Britain,
Egypt and the Sudan to 1896…...………………………..10
1. Egypt’s Contact with the Sudan………………………………………10
2. Britain’s Involvement in Egypt………………………………………16
3. Britain’s Penetration into the Sudan…………………………………..21
Chapter Two: The Foundations of the Anglo – Egyptian Condominium
and Early Sudanese Resistance (1899-1919)……….. 41
1. The Reconquest of the Sudan and the Condominium Agreement
of 1899……………………………………….42
a) The Agreement by the Co – domini………………………………….50
b) The International Reactions to the Reconquest…………………...…57
2. The Establishment of the Condominium and Early Administration
(1899-1919)…………………………………….61
a) Basic Economic Development………………………………….........74
b) Education and Health Services…………………………………… ...81
IV
3. Sudanese Resistance to Condominium Rule (1899 – 1919)…………88
Chapter Three: The evolution of Political Consciousness in the Sudan
(1919-1933)……………………………… 105
1. The Egyptian Nationalism and the Sudan Question
(1919-1924)……………………………….107
2. The Revolt of 1924 : Challenge and Response……………………...123
3. The Sudan from the 1924 Crisis to 1933…………………………….129
4. The Separate Administration of the Southern Sudan
(1920 –1933)……………………………...144
Chapter Four: Sudanese Nationalism and the Road to Independence
(1934-1956)……………………………….162
1. The Development of Sudanese Nationalist Politics
(1934-1945)……………………………….163
a) Neo-Mahdism …………………………………………………....173
b) The Graduates’Congress………………………………………....178
2. Nationalism and Constitutional Development (1942-1948)………...189
a) The Legislative Assembly and the Executive Council…………..199
b) The Abandonment of the Southern Policy………….……………204
3. The Path to Self-government (1948-1953)…………………………..210
4. The Transfer of Power and the Fate of the South (1953-1956)……...226
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..248
Appendixes………………………………………………………………….253
Bibliography……………………………………………………………...…296
V
MAPS and TABLES
MAPS
1. General map of the Sudan…………………………………………….23
2. Map of Darfur in Eastern Sudan………………………………………49
3. The Nile River and its Major Tributaries……………………………..76
4. Map of Sudan’s Agricultural Products………………………………..78
5. The Southern Sudan Big Towns………………………………..……..85
6. The Dominant Tribes in the Sudan……………………………...…….93
TABLES
1. The Revenue and Expenditure of the Sudan Government
(1899 –1913)…………………………………………………..73
2. Import and export trade in the Sudan (1908-1913)…………………...79
3. The chief export market and destination of exports ………………….79
4. Exports of principal products (1908 to 1913)………………………...80
5. Ordinary Members of the Advisory Council………………………...185
6. Recommendations of the Sudanization Committee…………………201
VI
GLOSSARY

Ashraf descendants of the prophet Mohamed (P.B.U.H.)
alim (pl.ulama) learned one, especially of Islam
al Istiqlal al-Tam complete independence
Ansar followers of the Mahdi
Defterdar commissioner
effendi formerly an honorific for a professional, an educated
man; later, anyone educated
emir an independent ruler or chieftain, a military commander
feddan a unit of land measurement; one feddan= 1,038 acres or
0,420 hectares
fellaheen (sing fellah) a peasant in Egypt
imam leader; title denoting the leader of prayers in a mosque
Ingleez reference to English people
Jabhat al-Kifah the Internal Struggle Front
al-Dakhili
jallaba pedlar
jihad war; religious war
kababish Sudanese soldiers recruited from the Kababish tribe
khalifa successor
VII
khalwa place of seclusion; denotes both a suffi retreat and a
Quran School
kuttab elementary school
Maahad al-Mashiqa Institute of Islamic Sciences
al-Almia
Mahdi the divinely guided one, expected by many Muslims to
restore Islam and to herald the end of time
majlis a council, court
malik King or “Sultan”
Mamalouks a member of military class, originally of Turkish slaves,
ruling in Egypt from about 1250 to 1517 and remaining
powerful until 1811
mamur a district official
mudir governor of a province
mudirieh province headquarters
muffatish district commissioner
mufti expert in Islamic Law
nebi prophet
Pasha formerly, a high official of the Ottoman Empire or the
modern Egyptian Kingdom: used after a name when used
as a title
Sayid formerly a religious title of respect, now roughly
equivalent to ‘Mr’
Sharia Islamic Law
VIII
sheikh tribal or religious chief or high notable
sirdar title of the commander-in-chief of the Egyptian Army
suffi Muslim mystic
tariqa a suffi order or brotherhood
umda headman of a town or group of villages
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