The Great Bend of the Gila: Contemporary Native American Connections to an Ancestral Landscape

274 Pages·2016·38.61 MB·English

T H E G R E A T B E N D
O F T H E G I L A
Contemporary Native American Connections
to an Ancestral Landscape
Aaron M. Wright Maren P. Hopkins
The Great Bend of the Gila: Contemporary Native
American Connections to an Ancestral Landscape
Released August 2016
Cover design by Kathleen Bader
Front cover image: Sunset over saguaros along the Great Bend of the
Gila. Back cover image: Ancient trail at twilight along the Great Bend
of the Gila. Photographs by Elias Butler
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dr. Aaron M. Wright, a Preservation Archaeologist with Archaeology
Southwest, has more than 15 years of professional anthropological
experience in private, nonprofit, and academic sectors, most of which
has been in the American Southwest. His research interests center
on cultural landscapes in southern Arizona, with particular focus on
those of the Hohokam and Patayan archaeological traditions along
the lower Gila River and its tributaries.
Ms. Maren P. Hopkins has 15 years of experience in conducting
historic preservation research in the American Southwest, especially
ethnography and archaeology. Her focus is on understanding Native
American history and traditions of land use using a collaborative
approach. Ms. Hopkins is the majority member of Anthropological
Research, LLC.
Print publication was generously sponsored by The Smith Family Trust
Fund for Site Protection, and in loving memory of William T. Lawrence
Archaeology Southwest is a private 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization supported
through memberships and donations, as well as grants from individuals, founda-
tions, and corporations. Learn more at www.archaeologysouthwest.org.
The Great Bend of the Gila
Contemporary Native American Connections
to an Ancestral Landscape
Aaron M. Wright
Maren P. Hopkins
Technical Report No. 2016-101
300 North Ash Alley, Tucson, Arizona 85701  September 2016

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
At least 13 federally recognized Native Ameri- the landscape and cultural resources encompassed
can tribes are culturally and historically associated by the proposed national monument.
with the Great Bend of the Gila, a distinctive stretch This study merges background research with
of the lower Gila River valley and surrounding land- contemporary tribal perspectives, as shared through
scape in rural southwestern Arizona. The cultural recent meetings with tribal representatives and cul-
landscape of the Great Bend is renowned for its im- turally knowledgeable elders, to: (1) examine each
pressive body of unique and nationally significant participating tribe’s connection to the Great Bend
archaeological and historical sites, including an landscape and its cultural and natural resources; (2)
abundance of world-class rock art. The vast major- evaluate the heritage value the participating tribes
ity of these cultural resources are attributable to the attribute to them; (3) assess the participating tribes’
ancestors, as well as the ancient and contemporary interests in better conserving the Great Bend land-
cultural traditions of the 13 associated tribes. To cel- scape and better preserving the cultural resources
ebrate and better preserve this fragile, multi-cultural within it; and (4) ascertain the participating tribes’
landscape—and the contemporary and future hu- support for establishing a Great Bend of the Gila
man connections to it—a Great Bend of the Gila National Monument.
National Monument (restricted solely to lands man- The ethnographic overviews demonstrate that
aged by the Bureau of Land Management) has been each participating tribe maintains a unique connec-
proposed. tion to the Great Bend of the Gila that is particular to
As assessed through a review of prior cultural their community’s history, identity, and values.
affiliation studies, ethnohistorical literature, and Meetings with the tribes’ cultural resource profes-
ethnographic projects in and around the Great sionals and advisors, and in some instances, their
Bend of the Gila, the 13 federally recognized tribes governing bodies, revealed that each participating
referenced above include: (1) Ak-Chin Indian tribe is concerned about the long-term preservation
Community; (2) Cocopah Indian Tribe; (3) Colo- of the Great Bend of the Gila’s landscape and the
rado River Indian Tribes; (4) Fort McDowell cultural resources within. Further, each participat-
Yavapai Nation; (5) Fort Mojave Indian Tribe; (6) ing tribe supports increased effort, investment, and
Fort Yuma Quechan Tribe; (7) Gila River Indian accountability on the part of the Bureau of Land
Community; (8) Hopi Tribe; (9) Salt River Pima- Management for protecting cultural resources on fed-
Maricopa Indian Community; (10) Tohono eral lands in the Great Bend area, and for engaging
O’odham Nation; (11) Yavapai-Apache Nation; associated tribes more consistently, effectively, and
(12) Yavapai-Prescott Indian Tribe; and (13) respectfully in the area’s management and the inter-
Pueblo of Zuni. This study provides ethnographic pretation of its cultural resources. As formal acts of
overviews of 11 of the associated tribes (Colorado support, to date eight of the 11 participating tribes
River Indian Tribes and Fort Mojave Indian Tribe have issued official Letters of Support or Tribal Reso-
were unable to participate), with specific focus on lutions backing the establishment of a Great Bend of
their cultural, historical, and contemporary ties to the Gila National Monument.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This ethnographic study of the proposed Great Management Program; the Salt River Pima-
Bend of the Gila National Monument was made Maricopa Indian Community’s Cultural Preserva-
possible with financial support from the Conserva- tion Program; the Yavapai-Prescott Indian Tribe’s
tion Lands Foundation. Print publication was gen- Cultural Resources Program; the Fort McDowell
erously sponsored by The Smith Family Trust Fund Yavapai Nation’s Cultural Center & Museum; the
for Site Protection, and in loving memory of Will- Yavapai-Apache Nation’s Cultural Resource Pro-
iam T. Lawrence. We are grateful to colleagues who gram; the Hopi Tribe’s Cultural Preservation Office
added their touch to this final report: Catherine and Cultural Resources Advisory Task Team; the
Gilman drafted the maps, Kathleen Bader designed Pueblo of Zuni’s Cultural Resource Advisory Team;
the covers with photographs kindly provided by the Fort Yuma Quechan Tribe’s Cultural Commit-
Elias Butler, and Donna Doolittle formatted the fi- tee and Tribal Council; the Ak-Chin Indian
nal manuscript. Likewise, a team of proofreaders— Community’s Cultural Resources Office and Tribal
Georgie Boyer, Katherine Cerino, Cherie Freeman, Council; the Yavapai Language Coalition; and the
Kate Gann, Bruce Hilpert, Fran Maiuri, Emilee Four Southern Tribes Cultural Resource Working
Mead, and Greer Warren—greatly enhanced the Group. Their openness to sharing important aspects
readability of this report. of their respective tribe’s history, perspective, and
We wish to devote special recognition to the tribal concerns makes this a truly collaborative project that
organizations and committees who graciously can serve as a foundation for continued cooperation
shared their knowledge and time to make this project and collaborative engagement.
a reality, including: the Cocopah Indian Tribe’s Cul- Finally, we thank U.S. Congressman Raúl
tural Resource Department, Elders’ Group, and Grijalva for introducing legislation to establish a
Tribal Council; the Tohono O’odham Nation’s Cul- Great Bend of the Gila National Monument, and for
tural Affairs Office and Cultural Preservation Com- explicitly calling for the participation of culturally
mittee; the Gila River Indian Community’s Tribal and historically associated tribes in its manage-
Historic Preservation Office and Cultural Resources ment.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................................................v
List of Figures............................................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Tables.............................................................................................................................................................xiii
1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................................1
Project Background................................................................................................................................................1
The Great Bend of the Gila as a Living Landscape...........................................................................................3
Place Names......................................................................................................................................................4
Scope of Research...................................................................................................................................................5
Research Methods..................................................................................................................................................5
Cultural Association........................................................................................................................................6
Tribal Meetings.................................................................................................................................................6
Review Sessions .............................................................................................................................................10
Orthography...................................................................................................................................................10
Organization of the Report.................................................................................................................................10
2. COCOPAH............................................................................................................................................................11
Cocopah Origins ..................................................................................................................................................11
Historical Perceptions of the Cocopah..............................................................................................................12
Traditional Cocopah Sociopolitical Organization...........................................................................................13
Bands................................................................................................................................................................15
Clans ................................................................................................................................................................16
Cocopah Traditional Cultural Beliefs and Practices.......................................................................................17
Households and Material Culture...............................................................................................................17
Songs................................................................................................................................................................18
Warfare............................................................................................................................................................18
From Traditional Lands to Reservation............................................................................................................19
The Cocopah Reservation.............................................................................................................................20
Cocopah Connections to the Great Bend of the Gila......................................................................................21
Connections through Traditional Stories and Place Names....................................................................21
Connections through Trade and Travel......................................................................................................23
Connections through Cultural Resources ..................................................................................................24
Cocopah Perceptions of a Great Bend of the Gila National Monument......................................................25
3. HOPI......................................................................................................................................................................27
Hopi Origins.........................................................................................................................................................27
Traditional Hopi Social Organization...............................................................................................................30
Hopi Ceremonial Organization.........................................................................................................................31
Hopi Ceremonialism .....................................................................................................................................31
Hopi Resistance to Spanish Colonialism..........................................................................................................31
From Traditional Lands to Reservation............................................................................................................33
Hopi Connections to the Great Bend of the Gila.............................................................................................34
Connections through Clan Migration.........................................................................................................34
Connections through Religious Societies and Ceremonies......................................................................36
Connections through Travel and Trade......................................................................................................37
Connections through Cultural Resources ..................................................................................................38
viii Table of Contents
Hopi Perceptions of a Great Bend of the Gila National Monument............................................................39
4. O’ODHAM AND PEE-POSH.............................................................................................................................41
O’odham Origins.................................................................................................................................................41
Historical Perceptions of the O’odham ............................................................................................................45
O’odham Settlement Patterns............................................................................................................................46
Traditional O’odham Sociopolitical Organization..........................................................................................48
Clans and Moieties.........................................................................................................................................48
Political Organization and Leadership.......................................................................................................50
Pee-Posh and Xalychidom..................................................................................................................................52
Traditional Pee-Posh and Xalychidom Sociopolitical Organization............................................................55
From Traditional Lands to Reservations..........................................................................................................57
The Gila River and Salt River Reservations...............................................................................................57
The Tohono O’odham Nation......................................................................................................................60
The Ak-Chin Reservation .............................................................................................................................62
O’odham and Pee-Posh Connections to the Great Bend of the Gila............................................................64
Connections through Traditional Lands ....................................................................................................64
Connections to the Natural Landscape.......................................................................................................65
Connections through Physical and Spiritual Travel.................................................................................76
Connections through Cultural Resources ..................................................................................................80
O’odham and Pee-Posh Perceptions of a Great Bend of the Gila National Monument............................84
5. QUECHAN...........................................................................................................................................................91
Quechan Origins..................................................................................................................................................91
Historical Perceptions of the Quechan.............................................................................................................94
Traditional Quechan Sociopolitical Organization ..........................................................................................95
Dream Power and Quechan Leadership ....................................................................................................95
Quechan Clans................................................................................................................................................96
Quechan Traditional Lands..............................................................................................................................100
Quechan Settlements...................................................................................................................................100
From Traditional Lands to Reservation..........................................................................................................103
The Fort Yuma Indian Reservation...........................................................................................................105
Quechan Connections to the Great Bend of the Gila....................................................................................106
Connection through Creation ....................................................................................................................107
Connection through Traditional Lands....................................................................................................107
Connection through Trade and Resource Collection .............................................................................108
Connection through Warfare .....................................................................................................................108
Connection through Cultural Resources..................................................................................................109
Quechan Perceptions and Concerns for a Great Bend of the Gila National Monument ........................110
6. YAVAPAI............................................................................................................................................................115
Yavapai Origins .................................................................................................................................................115
Historical Perceptions of the Yavapai.............................................................................................................115
Yavapai Social Organization............................................................................................................................116
Yavapai Social Identity and a Sense of Place...........................................................................................119
Yavapai Traditional Lands and Social Relations ..........................................................................................119
From Traditional Lands to Reservations........................................................................................................121
Yavapai Connections to the Great Bend of the Gila.....................................................................................124
Yavapai Perceptions of a Great Bend of the Gila National Monument.....................................................127
7. ZUNI....................................................................................................................................................................129
Zuni Origins .......................................................................................................................................................129
Traditional Socioreligious Organization of Zuni Social Identity................................................................132