The French Revolutionary Wars

96 Pages·3.291 MB·English

by  Gregory Fremont-Barnes

GREGORY FREMONT-BARNES
was born in San Francisco and
studied history at the University
of California, Berkeley, and the
Universities of Chicago and
Oxford. Since 1993 he has
lectured in British and American
history in Japan, principally at
Kobe University. He has
published a number of articles
on British diplomatic and
military history.
PROFESSOR ROBERT O'NEILL,
AO D.Phil, is the Chichele
Professor of the History of War
at the University of Oxford and
Series Editor of the Essential
Histories. His wealth of
knowledge and expertise shapes
the series content, and provides
up-to-the-minute research
and theory. Born in 1936 an
Australian citizen, he served in
the Australian army (1955-68)
and has held a number of
eminent positions in history
circles. He has been Chichele
Professor of the History of War
and a Fellow of All Souls
College, Oxford since 1987.
He is the author of many books
including works on the German
army and the Nazi party, and
the Korean and Vietnam wars.
Essential Histories
The French Revolutionary Wars
First published in Great Britain in 2001 by Osprey Publishing, For a complete list of titles available from Osprey Publishing
Elms Court Chapel Way. Botley, Oxford OX2 9LP please contact:
Email: [email protected]
Osprey Direct UK. PO Box 140,
© 2001 Osprey Publishing Limited Wellingborough. Northants, NN8 4ZA. UK
Email: [email protected]
All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose
of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under Osprey Direct USA.
the Copyright. Design and Patents Act, 1988. no part of this c/o Motorbooks International, PO Box 1,
publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or Osceola, WI 54020-0001. USA.
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, Email: [email protected]
chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or
www.ospreypublishing.com
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright
owner. Enquiries should be made to the Publishers.
Every attempt has been made by the Publisher to secure the
appropriate permissions for material reproduced in this book. If
there has been any oversight we will be happy to rectify the
situation and written submission should be made to the
Publishers.
ISBN 1 84176 283 0
Editor: Rebecca Cullen
Design: Ken Vail Graphic Design. Cambridge. UK
Cartography by The Map Studio
Index by Susan Williams
Picture research by Image Select International
Origination by Grasmere Digital Imaging, Leeds, UK
Printed and bound in China by L Rex Printing Company Ltd
01 02 03 04 05 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Introduction 7
Chronology
10
Background to war
Historical rivalries
12
Warring sides
Opposing strength
17
Outbreak
A clash of ideologies
19
The fighting
The first and second coalitions
25
Portrait of a sailor
William Dillon: A midshipman in the Royal Navy
67
The world around war
The impact of conflict
72
Portrait of a civilian
Emma Hamilton: British Ambassadress at Naples
78
How the war ended
82
Hohenlinden and Copenhagen
85
Conclusion and consequences
93
Further reading
94
Index
Major actions on land 1792-1800
1. France Valmy (1792), Valenciennes, Perpignan, Truillas, Lodi, Lonato, Castiglione, Bassano, Caldiero and Arcola
Hondschoote, and Wattignies (1793), Le Boulon and (1796), Rivoli (1797), Magnano, Cassano, The Trebbia
Tourcoing (1794). and Novi (1799), Montebello and Marengo (1800).
2. Belgium Jemappes (1792), Neerwinden, (1793), 7. Spain Campródon, San Marcial and Figueras (1794).
Courtrai. Tournai and Fleurus (1794).
8.The Middle East The Pyramids (1798). Mount Tabor
3. Holland Bergen, twice, and Castricum (1799).
and Aboukir (1799), Heliopolis (1800) and Alexandria
4. Germany Amberg, Friedberg, Wurzburg, Schliengen twice (1801). Important sieges: Lille. Longwy and
(1796), Stockach (1799), Hochstadt and Hohenlinden Verdun (1792);Valenciennes, Condé, Mainz, Quesnoy
(1800). Dunkirk and Toulon (1793); Collioure (1794), Rosas
5. Switzerland Zurich - three times (1799). Luxembourg (1795), Mantua (1796-97); Valetta
6. Italy Loano (1795), Montenotte, Dego, Mondovi, (1798-1 800): Acre and Milan (1799); Genoa (1800).
Introduction
Two centuries now separate us from the themselves on the fields of Belgium and
series of conflicts known as the French Germany, the plains of northern Italy and on
Revolutionary Wars. These wars, fought by the sands of Egypt and Syria.
armies of unprecedented size, in the course The Revolutionary Wars were fought on a
of a single decade (1792-1802) thrust upon vast geographical scale. They raged across
an unwilling continent political, social, and much of western and central Europe, the
military changes of such radical proportions Middle East, southern Africa and the West
that they forever changed the Western Indies. At sea, rival navies struggled for
world. For the first time in European history supremacy in all the waters around Europe,
war unleashed ideological forces whose the Atlantic, the Caribbean, the Indian
power and appeal called into question the Ocean and beyond. When we consider their
principle that underpinned the European extent it should perhaps not surprise us that
political system: the principle of monarchy. contemporaries and 19th-century historians
The French Revolutionaries, in challenging referred to these conflicts, in conjunction
the political legitimacy of the ancien regime, with the Napoleonic Wars, as 'the Great
laid the foundations for the widespread War'.
acceptance of democratic, representative, The French Revolutionary Wars were more
and constitutional rule. Wherever their than just the last conflict of a century
armies went they brought with them the already riven by intense strife; they marked
abstract notions of 'Nation' and 'People'. an abrupt and shattering end to the era of
Here began a new phase in the history of 'limited' wars which had begun in the age of
warfare whose impact is still seen today in Enlightenment. Up until this time, rival
the existence of mass citizen-armies. The dynasties ruling absolutely over their feudal
precedent was set, through universal societies matched the power of their small,
conscription and the systematic marshaling meticulously trained, highly expensive
of national resources, for 'total' war. professional forces in the quest for territorial
The greatest naval and military figures of spoil or economic advantage without
modern times - Nelson and Napoleon - radically upsetting the existing balance of
came to the fore during this period. They power between great empires.
were to reach their respective heights only a The wars of the French Revolution swept
short time later in the Napoleonic Wars all that into the dustbin of history. Here was
(1803-15). Indeed, the French Revolutionary a new and epic struggle, which the
Wars were fought in an age when leaders revolutionaries characterized as a life or
and men still regarded war as 'glorious' and death contest between the forces of liberty,
the cult of the hero was at its pitch. The equality, and fraternity, on the one hand,
Revolutionary Wars were the first proving- and the corrupt despotism of the ancien
ground for the band of charismatic and régimes on the other. Indeed, for France the
colorful men who were to serve as marshals early years were nothing less than a fight for
under the French Empire. Most of political survival, with cries of 'la Patrie en
Napoleon's great marshals and Nelson's able danger!' coming from all quarters. Yet even
lieutenants gained their experience at this before security from invasion was assured the
time. Augereau, Jourdan, Massena, war aims of the Revolutionaries took a
Kellermann and many others proved radical turn: the 'liberation' of their
8 Essential Histories • The French Revolutionary Wars
oppressed brethren in the Low Countries and the French Revolutionary Wars brought
the Rhineland became the new objective. conflict directly to the home front through
And, finally, emboldened by victories, the the permanent presence of foreign armies,
noble aims of the Revolution had been conscription, wholesale requisitioning and
forgotten and the whole movement appeared heavy, sometimes crippling, taxation. In
to have lost its early idealism. What had France, particularly, war made hitherto
begun as an ideological struggle, within a unheard of demands on its citizens, thus
few, turbulent years developed into a simple establishing the close link between soldier
war of territorial expansion in the great and civilian so familiar to the generations
traditions of the revolutionaries' monarchist which fought the World Wars more than a
political forebears. It was a supreme irony century later.
indeed, and by 1795 - for the first time since The wars placed into the hands of the
the Carolingian kings of the 9th century - Revolutionary government in France power
France stood triumphant on her 'natural' which the European monarchs could not
frontiers: the Rhine, the Alps, and the have imagined - power which translated
Pyrenees. She achieved what both Louis XIV itself into armies whose combination of
and Louis XV had failed to do earlier in the sheer size and patriotic fervor drove them
century despite the kings' enormous across Europe, defying all who stood in their
expenditure in men and money. paths. Indeed, so great was the military
The Revolutionary Wars mark the power unleashed by the Revolution that
beginning of modern war not because of the nothing less than the whole of Europe, seven
introduction of new technology, but because coalitions and a generation of fighting were
they established the idea of the great citizen- required finally to bring France to heel.
army now so familiar to us today. Universal Politically, the Revolutionary Wars opened
conscription implemented with a Pandora's box which even the final allied
organizational genius by Lazare Carnot victory in 1815 could not completely close.
enabled France to field vast new armies. As the revolutionary armies marched
These, composed of men fired with patriotic triumphant across the Low Countries,
enthusiasm, were used not only to hold back Germany, Italy, and Switzerland they laid the
the tide of counter-revolution, but to cross groundwork of nationalism and
the French frontiers taking with them the constitutional rule so necessary for a strong
seeds of republicanism. Marching to the sense of nationhood or, in some cases, future
strains of the Marseillaise and with cries of unification. The wars brought an effective
'Vive la Republic!', these 'armed missionaries', end to the Holy Roman Empire. Prussia's
as Robespierre termed them, introduced status and influence within Germany were
forms of political and social changes therefore increased. This had far-reaching
which opponents of the Revolution could implications. Prussia ultimately became a far
not contain. more aggressive state than Austria ever was
and would become a menace to European
The wars revolutionized warfare itself,
security after German unification in 1871. By
with the use of light troops, the deployment
eliminating dozens of antiquated princedoms
of armies by corps and divisions, the use of
and electorates, France inadvertently opened
concentration both tactically and
the way for eventual German unification
strategically to bring maximum force to bear
under Prussian leadership.
on a weaker opponent, and, above all, the
principle of 'living off the land' rather than The French Revolutionary Wars included
depending exclusively on depots and some of history's most dramatic battles on
enormous supply trains. Gone forever were land as well as at sea - and no previous
the days when civilians lived a separate conflict boasted so many. Seldom have wars
existence from the conflicts waged by their begun with battles so decisive not only for
respective sovereigns. For occupied peoples, the immediate conflict itself, but for history
Introduction 9
in general. Valmy did just that. A few hours' Although France ultimately attained
cannonade brought a halt to the carefully supremacy on land, Britain had swept the
dressed ranks of Prussian infantry, that great oceans of the French merchant marine,
legacy of Frederick the Great. This exchange snapped up most of France's colonies, and
itself illustrates the emergence of the new had consistently defeated her navy in great
citizen-soldier and the decline of the fleet actions which so reduced French power
'walking muskets' of absolutism. As Marshal at sea as to render the outcome at Trafalgar
Foch declared a century later, 'The wars of almost a foregone conclusion. Naval power
kings were at an end. The wars of peoples complemented and sustained Britain's
were beginning.' Lodi, though not in itself commercial and financial strength. Britain
more than a minor engagement, nevertheless was able to establish and maintain two
symbolized the spirit of the age, with the great coalitions, only to see them crushed by
young, energetic Bonaparte, flag in hand, her seemingly invincible counterpart on
land. After a decade of conflict France had
leading his men across a heavily defended
vanquished all the Continent's great powers
bridge, driving before him a vastly
- Austria, Prussia, and Russia - leaving an
superior force.
uneasy and temporary stalemate with
Battles at sea were no less significant. At
Britain mistress of the seas and France
Cape St Vincent, off the Spanish coast,
master on land.
Horatio Nelson's success bore out his policy
of ignoring orthodox naval tactics. The In 1802, Napoleon inherited a French
following year, with his crushing victory at Republic greatly enlarged and supremely
the Nile, Nelson would end forever self-confident. He was by then not simply a
Bonaparte's dream of establishing an Eastern leader of men but a leader of the nation. His
empire and threatening British rule in India. unrivalled success in the Revolutionary Wars
And there was Marengo - where after driving gave him the authority he needed to seize
his weary men over the Alps in the great political power in France, and also a
traditions of Hannibal, Bonaparte snatched mandate to prosecute war on an even greater
victory from the jaws of defeat, leaving scale than before, so building - and
ultimately losing - the greatest empire in
Austria defenseless in Italy and almost
Europe since Rome.
incapable of further resistance.
Chronology
1789 14 July Storming of the Bastille. A 27 August-19 December Siege of
Paris mob seizes the infamous state Toulon. Royalist forces, backed by an
prison and fortress, signaling the Anglo-Spanish fleet and troops, fail to
revolt against the monarchy and hold the city.
established authority. 8 September Battle of
1791 2 August Declaration of Pillnitz. Hondschoote. Houchard with
Prussia and Austria declare their 24,000 French defeats 16,000 men
intention to form a general European under the Duke of York.
coalition to restore the Bourbon 1794 23 May Battle of Tournai. Drawn
monarchy in France. action between equal forces; both sides
1792 7 February Conclusion of retreat.
Austro-Prussian Alliance. Troops 1 June Battle of the Glorious First of
begin advance toward French June. British naval victory; Howe
frontier; Sardinia (Piedmont) joins defeats his rival but fails to prevent a
soon after. vital food convoy from reaching France.
20 April French declare war on 26 June Battle of Fleurus. Kléber
Austria. Hostilities begin in Flanders. defeats Saxe-Coburg's attempts to
20 September Battle of Valmy. relieve Charleroi.
Dumouriez and Kellermann, with 1795 January-March French Occupation
59,000 men, confront and drive away of both Belgium and Holland.
35,000 Prussians by cannon fire alone. 5 April-22 June Treaty of Basle.
The Allied advance on Paris is Prussia, plus several minor German
temporarily checked; the Revolution is states, leaves the war. Spain follows
saved. suit.
6 November Battle of Jemappes. 1796 27 March Bonaparte assumes
Austrian defeat leads to the fall of command of the Army of Italy.
Brussels to the French, who then lay 10 May Battle of Lodi. Bonaparte
siege to Antwerp, causing alarm in personally leads the attack over the
Britain. bridge and secures victory. Milan is
1793 21 January Execution of Louis XVI, captured (May 15) and peace reached
outraging the crowned heads of with Piedmont. France annexes Nice
Europe; national conscription called; and Savoy.
Belgium annexed; invasion of Holland 5 August Battle of Castiglione.
imminent. Bonaparte turns both flanks of
1 February France declares war on Würmser's army, forcing it across the
Britain and Holland, then against Mincio River.
Spain (March 7). 19 August Treaty of San Ildefenso.
18 March Battle of Neerwinden. Spain becomes a French ally,
Austrians repulse French under threatening the Royal Navy's presence
Dumouriez. in the Mediterranean.
23 August Levee en masse. French 3 September Battle of Würzburg.
government decrees universal male Archduke Charles of Austria defeats
conscription. Jourdan.