The French Revolution

903 Pages·1907·96.933 MB·English

by  Adolphus William Ward, George Walter Prothero, Stanley Leathes (eds.), coll.

THE
CAMBRIDGE
MODERN
HISTORY
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[All Rights reserved."]
MODERN
HISTORY
PLANNED BY
LORD ACTON
THE LATE LL.D.
REGIUS PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY
EDITED BY
WARD
A. W. LlTT.D.
G. W. PROTHERO LlTT.D.
STANLEY LEATHES
M.A.
VOLUME VIM
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
o
cie
8
mt
Edition, 1904
Reprinted 1907
TRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
PREFACE.
THE main focus of activity for European forces shifts from age to
age. Thus in preceding volumes, under the changing play of
national collisions, and the stimulus of new ideas, we have seen its
position move from Italy to the Rhineland and to Switzerland. Its
limits are sometimes narrow, sometimes they embrace a wider field.
But in no epoch is the centre of material and spiritual energy for
Europe more definitely located, in none is the action proceeding from
that centre more novel in its kind, more destructive of the old, more
ambitious of the new, than in the period of the French Revolution.
For this whole decade the main attention of the student of European
history must centre in Paris.
ThepresentVolumetracestheintellectualgenesisoftherevolutionary
movement among the audacious thinkers and the philanthropic listeners
of the eighteenth century. It shows how the institutions and the
administration of France were unfitted to resist a violent shock, while
her vacillating rulers hesitated to use such resources as the constitution
placed in their hands. Benevolent enthusiasm, peaceful agitation,
irresolute control, are succeeded by anarchy and terrorism; societyseems
to be'resolved into its elements,and thefortunes ofthe nation to depend
on the and of a few chance-selected men. The
caprice idiosyncrasies
impulse spreads beyond the frontiers. Europe gathers her forces to
resist the destructive flood. France reacts to hostile pressure; institu-
tions are extemporised in the midst of foreign and civilwar; the organic
unity of the French nation reasserts itself; order succeeds to anarchy,
fixed aims to vague aspirations; and wars of conquest follow wars
of self-preservation. Separately is described the attempt of legislators
to break loose from the bonds of custom, convention, and tradition, and
to build up a new scheme of human relations from a purely rational
basis. Finally, the effect of these destructive and reconstructive ideas
is traced in action and reaction through the chiefcountries of Europe:
vi Preface.
and the foundations of our modern political and social scheme become
visible. The new phase of European history, which opens with the
Consulate, is left to be treated in another volume.
But while thismaindramaabsorbs ourmain attention,and dominates
one-halfofthe European continent,a secondaryplot unfolds itselfinthe
east. The preoccupation of the central Powers leaves room for the
ambition and intrigue of Russia; and the fate of Poland is decided in
accordance with Catharine's wishes. Meanwhile the jealousy of Austria
and Prussia and their disputes over the Polish spoils leave to France a
breathing-space; the revolutionary government has leisure to establish
itself; and before Poland is finally dismembered the gravest crisis has
passed. Here and there moreover we see indications of a new and
imperious problem,the Eastern question, which will occupy the energies
and attract the ambitions of statesmen and diplomatists for more
than a century to come.
The regeneration of France, the extinction of Poland these themes
with their accessories claim all our space. From the European point
of view, the domestic politics of England become of secondary interest,
even to Englishmen. The European significance of British activity is
in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. British internal struggles and
party fortunes influence the main plot only in so far as they hamper or
assist the efforts of William Pitt and Nelson. But the due considera-
tion of British politics is only deferred; the period before 1793 will
find its place in Volume VI, the period after 1793 in Volume IX;
while Volume VI, which will naturally include the story of Grattan's
Parliament, must also follow that movement to its close in the Act
of Union.
The thanks of the Editors are due to all the contributors to this
Volume for time and labour unsparingly devoted to the common task;
and also to Mr C. R. L. Fletcher, of Magdalen College, Oxford, for
advice and assistance freely given, and to Professor Maitland for his
careful revision of the translation of the Chapter on "French Law in
the Age of the Revolution."
A. W. W.
G. W. P.
S. L.
CAMBRIDGE,
April, 1904.
Til
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
PHILOSOPHY AND THE REVOLUTION.
By P. F. WILLERT, M.A., Honorary Fellow of
Exeter College, Oxford.
PACK
The influence of philosophy. Views of Mallet du Pan and Mounier . 1
The principles of 1789 and 1793 2
The conception of the law of nature. Earlier histo.ry o.f th.ese.opinions.
Boucher 3
Mariana. Montaigne. The "Lib.erti.nes.".Ba.yle..... 4
The method of Bayle's Dictionary 6
Pascal. Bossuet. Hobbes 6
Locke and his influence ... 7
The effects of the policy of Louis XIV and.Orleans. ^_Jl__ 8
Law's scheme. The merchants and the nobility. Jansenists, Molinists . 9
Voltaire. The Letters on the English 10
His commonsense attitude. His conservatism 11
/His ideas of reform, on the Church, on government .... 12
Practical proposals of reform. Criminal procedure 13
Negative character of Voltaire's work. Boulainvilliers 14
Vauban. The Dime Royale. Saint-Pierre 16
D'Argenson on the government of France 16
Montesquieu. The Lettres Persanes 17
...
L'Esprit des Lois 18
The constitution of England and the separation of powers 19
The influence of Montesquieu. Taxation 20
Signs of the coming storm. Mirabeau the Elder 21
The Economists. Quesnay 22
Mercier de la Riviere. Dupont of Nemours. Doctrine of Quesnay . 23
The Physiocrats. Virtue the best policy 24
The Corn Laws. Turgot. Necker 26
The impot unique. The Encyclopedists 26
Rousseau. The Sentimental School 27
Emile. The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality 28
The Social Contract. The views of Rousseau
The General Will 30
viii Contents.
PAGE
The lawgiver. The ideal State 31
The influence of Rousseau
Communism. Morelly. Mably 33
The Jacobins and Communism 34
Influence of the philosophers
CHAPTER
II.
THE GOVERNMENT OF FRANCE.
By F. C. MONTAGUE, M.A., Lecturer in Modern History and sometime
Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, Astor Professor of History
in University College, London.
The Crown. The Royal Council 36
The Ministers. The Council. The civil service . 37
The Intendants 38
Provincial government. The Provincial Estates 39
Decay of the Provincial Estates 40
The system of communes ... 41
Impotence of communal government. Municipal institutions 42
Town organisation. Interference of the Crown 43
Working of the bureaucracy 44
Formalism. Lack of criticism. Arbitrary caprice 45
Uncertainty of the Law. The Courts of Justice 46
Parlements. Prtsidiauat 47
Extraordinary Courts. Feudal jurisdiction 48
Multiplicity and confusion of Courts and codes ..... 49
The criminal law. Lettres de cachet 50
The army and the system of granting commissions 51
The militia. The French clergy 52
Thenumbers oftheclergy. The religious Orders. Wealth of the Church 53
Exemptions from taxation. Distribution of ecclesiastical revenues.
Government of the Church ... 54
Condition of the higher and of the lower clergy . 55
The religious Houses. Dissent and repression 56
The French nobility 57
The weakness of the nobility 58
Lack of union in the nobility. The middle class 59
The cities and their population. The bourgeoisie 60
Their grievances. The peasants 61
Serfdom. Peasant proprietors. Metayers ... 62
Condition of the peasantry 63
Agrarian burdens, and hardships . . 64
The condition of France compared with that of other countries . , 65
Contents. ix
CHAPTER m.
FINANCE.
By HENBY HIGGS, M.A., of H.M. Treasury.
PAGE
Necessity of a financial revolution 66
The domaine. The taille .... ' ; ' . . 67
The capitation. The don gratuit . . . . " . '".'"'''/ ; 68
Vingtieme*. Aides. Traitet .' ] '*""*' '".'' . ' 69
The gabette. Local burdens ' i1 ' '-.- ' .' " 70
Collection of revenue. Farming of taxes 71
Defects and confusions of the financial system . . . > " . 72
Pensions. The progressive deficit .-'"'". 7" . 73
TNehcekeCro'msptCeomRpetnedRuenofdu17(818781). .Othe.r fin.ancial/-s1tat.e'tmen*t;s.*a:nd.-es.timates. 7754
Statement of gross receipts .....: .'.. 76
The defects of French finance 77
Lack of economy. The burdens of the nation 78
CHAPTER
IV.
LOUIS XVI/
By Professor F. C. MONTAGUE, M.A.
Personal characteristics of Louis XVI 79
....
Marie-Antoinette 80
;
The King's brothers. Effects of personal influences 81
The King's Ministers. Recall of the Parlements 82
Turgot as Controller-General . -J . . . . ; , . . 83
Administration of Turgot . . . . . .-..> . . . 84
Reforms and removal of trade restrictions . . . . . . 85
The Caitse (fEscompte. Provincial government 86
Opposition to Turgot. The Parlement of Paris 87
Turgot dismissed. Other reformers. Malesherbes. Saint.-.Ge.rmain . . 88
Necker Finance Minister . . . . ., .,;..< . . 89
His qualities. His task. His policy . ": 1 .?. * . , . . 90
Provincial Assemblies. The serfs . . 91
War between England and Fran.ce. .Its .effect.on .Fren.ch fi.nance.s an.d on
French ideas ; .?. . 92
Necker's financial expedients ...... 93
Publication of the Compte Rendu. Necker dismissed , , . . . 94
Joly de Fleury. Projects of the Parlemente 95
A Council ofFinance. Resignation ofFleury. Lefevred'Onnesson. Peace
with Engknd 96
Calonne Controller-General. State of the Treasury . . . .c 97
Loans and expenditure. The Parlement demurs 98
Increasing deficit. Schemesfortaxation ofthe clergyand otherprivileged
persons. Treaty with England 99
Contents.
PAGE
Loan from the City of Paris. Calonne's proposals for reform . . . 100
Loan from the Caisse tfEscompte. The Notables summoned. Composition
of the Assembly 101
Death of Vergennes. The Notables assemble. Proposals of Calonne . 102
Opposition of the Notables. Calonne's manifesto. Ministerial changes. . 103
Calonne dismissed. Lomenie de Brienne chief of the Council of Finance 104
The Notables dissolved. Lomenie's edicts. The Parlement opposes the
stamp-tax 105
Demand for States General. Lit dejustice. The Parlementgoes into exile 106
Frederick William and Holland. The Parlement returns to Paris . . 107
Brienne proposes fresh loans. Royal Session 103
The new Provincial Assemblies. Lambert's Compte Rendu . . . 109
Arrest of d'Espremenil and Goislard. Lit de justice at Versailles. New
Cour PUniere 110
Resistance of the provincial Parlementt . . . . . . . Ill
Tumults in Britanny and Dauphine . . . . . . . . 112
The clergy and taxation. The meeting of Vizille 118
The States General summoned 114
Lome'nie gives place to Necker 115
The Notables again. Assembly at Romans 116
Question of the representation of the Third Estate .111187
Scarcity and disorder
CHAPTER
V.
THE ELECTIONS TO THE STATES GENERAL.
By Professor F. C. MONTAGUE, M.A.
The States General of France 119
Their history. The cahiers des doteances. The deputies petitioners . 120
The language of the royal summons. Hopes of the public . . . 121
The press. Pamphlets and treatises. Sieyes. Mounier . . . . 122
Libels and caricatures 123
Inaction of Ministers. Organisation of the electors . . . . . 124
The franchise in the several Estates 125
The modes of election. Substitutes 126
Censures on the proceedings of the Government 127
Defects and anomalies in the elections 128
Question ofmannerofelectionin Britanny, Dauphine, and other Provinces 129
The elections in Paris 130
The several Estates in Paris 131
The deputies of the Third.Estat.e in.Pari.s. M.alou.et a.nd t.he M.inist.ers . 132
Composition of the States General 133
The cahiers des dofeances 134
The manner of their compilation ........ 135
The cahiers as evidence of public sentiment 136
The reforms demanded 137
political
Specific demands for rights and reforms 138
The several demands of the Three Estates 139